264ac04b84
Some logins and posting operations, like certain simple forums are working. Others, like wikimedia, are still not :(
2052 lines
853 KiB
HTML
2052 lines
853 KiB
HTML
<!DOCTYPE html>
|
||
<html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-menu-disabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-enabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-feature-navigation-update-disabled vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available skin-thumbsize-clientpref-standard" lang="en" dir="ltr">
|
||
<head>
|
||
<meta charset="UTF-8">
|
||
<title>Ming dynasty - Wikipedia</title>
|
||
<script>document.documentElement.className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-menu-disabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-enabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-enabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-feature-navigation-update-disabled vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available skin-thumbsize-clientpref-standard";RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"fdfd1c87-82f9-479c-817f-7f702935effd","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Ming_dynasty","wgTitle":"Ming dynasty","wgCurRevisionId":1359687877,"wgRevisionId":1359687877,"wgArticleId":43449,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":"Stallmandaishiredux","wgUserGroups":["*","user"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Featured articles","Use dmy dates from January 2025","Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments","Articles containing Chinese-language text","Pages using multiple image with unknown parameters","CS1 errors: ISBN date","CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)","Webarchive template wayback links","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Ming dynasty","1368 establishments in Asia","14th century in China","14th-century establishments in China","15th century in China","1640s disestablishments in China","1644 disestablishments in Asia","16th century in China","17th century in China","Confucian dynasties","Dynasties of China","Former countries in Chinese history","Medieval East Asia","States and territories disestablished in 1644","States and territories established in 1368"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Ming_dynasty","wgRelevantArticleId":43449,"wgUserId":54504578,"wgUserIsTemp":false,"wgUserEditCount":1,"wgUserRegistration":1782431101000,"wgUserFirstRegistration":1782431101000,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Ming_Dynasty","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgConfirmEditCaptchaNeededForGenericEdit":"hcaptcha","wgConfirmEditForceShowCaptcha":false,"wgConfirmEditHCaptchaSiteKey":"5d0c670e-a5f4-4258-ad16-1f42792c9c62","wgGlobalGroups":[],"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgMediaViewerMobileBeta":false,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgULSAcceptLanguageList":["en-us","en"],"wgULSBabelLanguages":[],"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Ming_dynasty","wgPageAssessments":{"China":{"class":"FA","importance":"Top"},"China/WikiProject Chinese history":{"class":"FA","importance":"Top"},"East Asia":{"class":"FA","importance":""},"Former countries":{"class":"FA","importance":""},"Military history":{"class":"FA","importance":""},"Military history/Asian military history task force":{"class":"FA","importance":""},"Military history/Chinese military history task force":{"class":"FA","importance":""},"Project-independent assessment":{"class":"FA","importance":""}},"wgParsoidHtmlVersion":"2.8.0","parsermigration-parsoid":true,"wgPageTriageUserCanPatrol":false,"wgPageTriageUserCanAutoPatrol":false,"wgTestKitchenUserExperiments":{"overrides":[],"enrolled":["growthexperiments-revise-tone"],"assigned":{"growthexperiments-revise-tone":"treatment"},"subject_ids":{"growthexperiments-revise-tone":"ad0e15192d61ca4a1c91d7de0325d5ec8912327572fc38ba32c3e4ec61ab69c8"}},"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgVisualEditorPageIsDisambiguation":false,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgULSLanguageSelectorV2Enabled":true,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q9903","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"wgGEAskQuestionEnabled":false,"wgGELinkRecommendationsFrontendEnabled":true,"wgGEHelpPanelMentorData":{"name":"Whpq","gender":"male","effectiveName":"Whpq","effectiveGender":"male","editCount":155189,"lastActive":"Active 2 days ago","backAt":"17 July 2026"},"wgGEHelpPanelAskMentor":true,"wgGEHelpPanelUserEmail":"persimmonsofwrath@proton.me","wgGEHelpPanelUserEmailConfirmed":true,"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGESuggestedEditsTaskTypes":{"taskTypes":["link-recommendation","revise-tone"],"unavailableTaskTypes":[]},"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":true,"wgEchoSeenTime":{"alert":"1970-01-01T00:00:01Z","message":"2026-06-25T23:56:07Z"},"wgPersonalDashboardMenuVisible":false,"wgHCaptchaBlockedIpEditingScoreCollectionSiteKey":"20484466-6d76-4c7a-9648-f730aa6a47ba"};
|
||
RLSTATE={"ext.gadget.SubtleUpdatemarker":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"loading","user.options":"loading","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.cite.parsoid.styles":"ready","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.skinning.content.parsoid":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","mediawiki.skins.legacy":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.echo.styles.badge":"ready","oojs-ui.styles.icons-alerts":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges.ulsV2":"ready","ext.readingLists.bookmark.icons":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","mediawiki.page.watch.ajax","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.geonotice","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin.clearcookie","ext.testKitchen","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.echo.init","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","wikibase.databox.fromWikidata","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.HelpPanel.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","ext.readingLists.bookmark"];</script>
|
||
<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.load("/w/load.php?lang=en\u0026modules=user\u0026skin=vector-2022\u0026user=Stallmandaishiredux\u0026version=1rgj9");mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"e14afdbe07713a5fb02ee4a1a4effd6b6a59ad0b+\\","watchToken":"94206c019b00ffb50f5382d4bdf4cc716a59ad0b+\\","csrfToken":"1f77a9781e83a4936da79e7b7d012e526a59ad0b+\\"});mw.user.options.set({"echo-subscriptions-email-edit-thank":"1","echo-subscriptions-email-page-review":"1","growthexperiments-help-panel-tog-help-panel":"1","growthexperiments-homepage-se-filters":"[\"link-recommendation\",\"revise-tone\"]","growthexperiments-revise-tone-treatment-initiated":"1","growthexperiments-tour-help-panel":0,"growthexperiments-tour-homepage-discovery":0,"growthexperiments-tour-homepage-mentorship":0,"visualeditor-hidebetawelcome":"1","welcomesurvey-responses":"{\"reason\":\"new-page\",\"edited\":\"yes-many\",\"languages\":[\"en\"],\"_group\":\"control\",\"_render_date\":\"20260625234504\",\"_submit_date\":\"20260625234519\",\"_counter\":1}","wikieditor-realtimepreview":"1","discussiontools-autotopicsub":1,"echo-subscriptions-email-edit-user-talk":1,"echo-subscriptions-web-reverted":false,"echo-subscriptions-email-article-linked":true,"echo-subscriptions-web-article-linked":true,"echo-subscriptions-email-mention":true,"echo-subscriptions-email-dt-subscription":true,"readinglistsbeta":1});
|
||
}];});});</script>
|
||
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.parsoid.styles%7Cext.cite.styles%7Cext.echo.styles.badge%7Cext.readingLists.bookmark.icons%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediaBadges.ulsV2%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.skinning.content.parsoid%7Cmediawiki.skins.legacy%7Coojs-ui.styles.icons-alerts%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022">
|
||
<script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script>
|
||
<meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content="">
|
||
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.gadget.SubtleUpdatemarker&only=styles&skin=vector-2022">
|
||
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022">
|
||
<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=user.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022&user=Stallmandaishiredux&version=1xqoq">
|
||
<meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.11">
|
||
<meta name="referrer" content="origin">
|
||
<meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin">
|
||
<meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard">
|
||
<meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no">
|
||
<meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415_%28cropped_2%29.jpg">
|
||
<meta property="og:image:width" content="1003">
|
||
<meta property="og:image:height" content="1200">
|
||
<meta name="viewport" content="width=1120">
|
||
<meta property="og:title" content="Ming dynasty - Wikipedia">
|
||
<meta property="og:type" content="website">
|
||
<link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org">
|
||
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png">
|
||
<link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico">
|
||
<link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)">
|
||
<link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd">
|
||
<link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty">
|
||
<link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">
|
||
<link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom">
|
||
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" />
|
||
</head>
|
||
<body class="test-kitchen-experiment-growthexperiments-revise-tone test-kitchen-experiment-growthexperiments-revise-tone-treatment skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Ming_dynasty rootpage-Ming_dynasty skin-vector-2022 action-view">
|
||
<div id="mw-aria-live-region" class="mw-aria-live-region" aria-live="polite"></div><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a>
|
||
<div class="vector-header-container">
|
||
<header class="vector-header mw-header no-font-mode-scale">
|
||
<div class="vector-header-start">
|
||
<nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site">
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" >
|
||
<input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" >
|
||
<label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span>
|
||
</label>
|
||
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container">
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</nav>
|
||
|
||
<a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo">
|
||
<img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/enwiki-25.svg" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50">
|
||
<span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert">
|
||
<img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en-25.svg" style="width: 8.75em; height: 1.375em;">
|
||
<img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en-25.svg" width="140" height="11" style="width: 8.75em; height: 0.6875em;">
|
||
</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-header-end">
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box">
|
||
<a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Search</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
<div class="vector-typeahead-search-container">
|
||
<div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width">
|
||
<form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button">
|
||
<div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved">
|
||
<div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon">
|
||
<input
|
||
class="cdx-text-input__input mw-searchInput" autocomplete="off"
|
||
type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="none" spellcheck="false" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput"
|
||
>
|
||
<span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search">
|
||
</div>
|
||
<button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button>
|
||
</form>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools">
|
||
<div class="vector-user-links-main">
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
<li id="pt-userpage-2" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Homepage&source=personaltoolslink&namespace=0" class="" title="Your homepage [.]" accesskey="."><span>Stallmandaishiredux</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance">
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" >
|
||
<input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" >
|
||
<label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span>
|
||
</label>
|
||
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container">
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</nav>
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
<li id="pt-notifications-alert" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Notifications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-echo-notifications-badge mw-echo-notification-badge-nojs oo-ui-icon-bell mw-echo-notifications-badge-all-read" id="" data-mw-notifications-section="alert" data-badge-icon="bell" data-event-name="ui.notifications" data-counter-num="0" data-counter-text="0" title="Your alerts"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-bell mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-bell cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Alerts (0)</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-notifications-notice" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Notifications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-echo-notifications-badge mw-echo-notification-badge-nojs oo-ui-icon-tray mw-echo-unseen-notifications" id="" data-mw-notifications-section="message" data-badge-icon="tray" data-counter-num="3" data-counter-text="3" title="Your notices"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-tray mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-tray cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Notices (3)</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
<li id="pt-readinglists-2" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a href="/wiki/Special:ReadingLists/Stallmandaishiredux" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="" title="Your saved items"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-bookmarkList mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-bookmarkList cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Saved</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-watchlist-2" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a href="/wiki/Special:Watchlist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="" title="The list of pages you are monitoring for changes [L]" accesskey="L"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-watchlist mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-watchlist cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Watchlist</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-in" title="Personal settings" >
|
||
<input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" >
|
||
<label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAvatar mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAvatar cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span>
|
||
</label>
|
||
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal" title="User menu" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
<li id="pt-user-page" class="vector-menu-item--collapsible mw-list-item"><a data-mw-interface class="" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Homepage&source=personaltoolslink&namespace=0"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAvatar mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAvatar cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Stallmandaishiredux</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-mytalk" class="new mw-list-item"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/User_talk:Stallmandaishiredux" title="Your talk page (page does not exist) [n]" accesskey="n" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userTalk mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userTalk cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Talk</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-sandbox" class="mw-list-item"><a data-mw-interface class="new" href="/w/index.php?title=User:Stallmandaishiredux/sandbox&action=edit&redlink=1&preload=Template%3AUser+sandbox%2Fpreload" title="Your sandbox (page does not exist)"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-sandbox mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-sandbox cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Sandbox</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-readinglists" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Special:ReadingLists/Stallmandaishiredux" title="Your saved items" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-bookmarkList mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-bookmarkList cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Saved</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-preferences" class="mw-list-item"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Special:Preferences" title="Your preferences" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-settings mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-settings cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Preferences</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-betafeatures" class="mw-list-item"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures" title="Beta features" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-labFlask mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-labFlask cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Beta</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-watchlist" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Special:Watchlist" title="The list of pages you are monitoring for changes [L]" accesskey="L" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-watchlist mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-watchlist cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Watchlist</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-mycontris" class="mw-list-item"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/Stallmandaishiredux" title="A list of your contributions [y]" accesskey="y" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userContributions mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userContributions cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Contributions</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="pt-logout" class="mw-list-item"><a data-mw-interface href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogout&returnto=Ming+dynasty" data-mw-interface="1" title="Log out" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logOut mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logOut cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Log out</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</nav>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</header>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="mw-page-container">
|
||
<div class="mw-page-container-inner">
|
||
<div class="vector-sitenotice-container">
|
||
<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-column-start">
|
||
<div class="vector-main-menu-container">
|
||
<div id="mw-navigation">
|
||
<nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site">
|
||
<div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container">
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element">
|
||
<div
|
||
class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned"
|
||
data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned"
|
||
data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu"
|
||
data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container"
|
||
data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container"
|
||
>
|
||
<div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin" aria-label="Move Main menu to sidebar">move to sidebar</button>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin" aria-label="Hide Main menu">hide</button>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-heading">
|
||
Navigation
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
<li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li><li id="n-sitesupport" class="mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" data-mw-donate-attempt="main_menu" title="Support us by donating to the Wikimedia Foundation"><span>Donate</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-heading">
|
||
Contribute
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
<li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</nav>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container">
|
||
<nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark">
|
||
<div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container">
|
||
<div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element">
|
||
<div
|
||
class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned"
|
||
data-feature-name="toc-pinned"
|
||
data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc"
|
||
data-pinned-container-id="vector-toc-pinned-container"
|
||
data-unpinned-container-id="vector-toc-unpinned-container"
|
||
>
|
||
<h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin" aria-label="Move Contents to sidebar">move to sidebar</button>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin" aria-label="Hide Contents">hide</button>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-mw-content-text"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a href="#" class="vector-toc-link">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-History"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span>
|
||
<span>History</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
<span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
<span>Toggle History subsection</span>
|
||
</button>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Founding"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span>
|
||
<span>Founding</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Founding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Revolt_and_rebel_rivalry"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolt_and_rebel_rivalry">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span>
|
||
<span>Revolt and rebel rivalry</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Revolt_and_rebel_rivalry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Reign_of_the_Hongwu_Emperor"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_the_Hongwu_Emperor">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span>
|
||
<span>Reign of the Hongwu Emperor</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Reign_of_the_Hongwu_Emperor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-South-Western_frontier"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South-Western_frontier">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span>
|
||
<span>South-Western frontier</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-South-Western_frontier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Campaign_in_the_North-East"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_in_the_North-East">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span>
|
||
<span>Campaign in the North-East</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Campaign_in_the_North-East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Relations_with_Tibet"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Tibet">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span>
|
||
<span>Relations with Tibet</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Relations_with_Tibet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span>
|
||
<span>Reign of the Yongle Emperor</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Rise_to_power"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_to_power">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span>
|
||
<span>Rise to power</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Rise_to_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-New_capital_and_foreign_engagement"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_capital_and_foreign_engagement">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span>
|
||
<span>New capital and foreign engagement</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-New_capital_and_foreign_engagement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span>
|
||
<span>Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Decline"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span>
|
||
<span>Decline</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span>
|
||
<span>Reign of the Wanli Emperor</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Role_of_eunuchs"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_eunuchs">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span>
|
||
<span>Role of eunuchs</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Role_of_eunuchs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span>
|
||
<span>Economic breakdown and natural disasters</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Fall_of_the_dynasty"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_dynasty">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span>
|
||
<span>Fall of the dynasty</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Manchus"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Manchus">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span>
|
||
<span>Rise of the Manchus</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Manchus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span>
|
||
<span>Rebellion, invasion, collapse</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Government"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span>
|
||
<span>Government</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
<span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
<span>Toggle Government subsection</span>
|
||
</button>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span>
|
||
<span>Province, prefecture, sub-prefecture and county</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Institutions_and_bureaus"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions_and_bureaus">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span>
|
||
<span>Institutions and bureaus</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Institutions_and_bureaus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Institutional_trends"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_trends">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span>
|
||
<span>Institutional trends</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Institutional_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span>
|
||
<span>Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span>
|
||
<span>Bureaus and offices for the imperial household</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Personnel"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personnel">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span>
|
||
<span>Personnel</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Personnel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Scholar-officials"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholar-officials">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span>
|
||
<span>Scholar-officials</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Scholar-officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Lesser_functionaries"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lesser_functionaries">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span>
|
||
<span>Lesser functionaries</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Lesser_functionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span>
|
||
<span>Eunuchs, princes, and generals</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Society_and_culture"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span>
|
||
<span>Society and culture</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
<span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
<span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span>
|
||
</button>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Literature_and_arts"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_arts">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span>
|
||
<span>Literature and arts</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Literature_and_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Religion"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span>
|
||
<span>Religion</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Philosophy"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span>
|
||
<span>Philosophy</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span>
|
||
<span>Wang Yangming's Confucianism</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Conservative_reaction"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservative_reaction">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span>
|
||
<span>Conservative reaction</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Conservative_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Urban_and_rural_life"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_and_rural_life">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span>
|
||
<span>Urban and rural life</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Urban_and_rural_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Science_and_technology"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span>
|
||
<span>Science and technology</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Population"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span>
|
||
<span>Population</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-See_also"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span>
|
||
<span>See also</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Notes"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span>
|
||
<span>Notes</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-References"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span>
|
||
<span>References</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
<span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
<span>Toggle References subsection</span>
|
||
</button>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Citations"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span>
|
||
<span>Citations</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Works_cited"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span>
|
||
<span>Works cited</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-Further_reading"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span>
|
||
<span>Further reading</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
<span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
<span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span>
|
||
</button>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
<li id="toc-Reference_works_and_primary_sources"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_works_and_primary_sources">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span>
|
||
<span>Reference works and primary sources</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-Reference_works_and_primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-General_studies"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_studies">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span>
|
||
<span>General studies</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-General_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="toc-External_links"
|
||
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links">
|
||
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
<span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span>
|
||
<span>External links</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
<ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</nav>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="mw-content-container">
|
||
<main id="content" class="mw-body">
|
||
<header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar no-font-mode-scale">
|
||
<nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark">
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" >
|
||
<input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" >
|
||
<label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span>
|
||
</label>
|
||
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container">
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</nav>
|
||
<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span lang="en" dir="ltr"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ming dynasty</span></span></h1>
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" >
|
||
<input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="130 languages" aria-description="Go to an article in another language. Available in 130 languages" >
|
||
<label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-130" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">130 languages</span>
|
||
</label>
|
||
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dinastie" title="Ming-dinastie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ming-dinastie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9A%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D_%E1%88%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%88_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የሚንግ ሥርወ መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሚንግ ሥርወ መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिंग वंश – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मिंग वंश" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%BA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سلالة مينغ الحاكمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلالة مينغ الحاكمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%AC" title="عيلة مينج – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عيلة مينج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6" title="মিং ৰাজবংশ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মিং ৰাজবংশ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_s%C3%BClal%C9%99si" title="Min sülaləsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Min sülaləsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="مین سولالهسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مین سولالهسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Мин империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мин империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingu_dinast%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Mingu dinastėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Mingu dinastėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Дынастыя Мін – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дынастыя Мін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Імперыя Мін – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Імперыя Мін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Мин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6" title="মিং রাজবংশ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিং রাজবংশ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="མིང་རྒྱལ་རབས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མིང་རྒྱལ་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierniezh_Ming" title="Tierniezh Ming – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tierniezh Ming" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Мин улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Мин улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ACng-di%C3%A8u" title="Mìng-dièu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Mìng-dièu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Импери Мин – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Импери Мин" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی مینگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی مینگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%AD%C5%A1e_Ming" title="Říše Ming – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Říše Ming" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D3%97" title="Мин империйӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Мин империйӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenhinllin_Ming" title="Brenhinllin Ming – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Brenhinllin Ming" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastiet" title="Ming-dynastiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ming-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Δυναστεία Μινγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυναστεία Μινγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Ming" title="Dinastio Ming – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dinastio Ming" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingi_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Mingi dünastia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mingi dünastia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dinastia" title="Ming dinastia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ming dinastia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="دودمان مینگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دودمان مینگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastia" title="Ming-dynastia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ming-dynastia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingi_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Mingi dünastia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Mingi dünastia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_Ming" title="Dynastie Ming – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dynastie Ming" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-D%C3%BCnastii" title="Ming-Dünastii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ming-Dünastii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADshliocht_Ming" title="Ríshliocht Ming – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríshliocht Ming" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" title="明 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="明" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ACgh-shliochd_nam_Ming" title="Rìgh-shliochd nam Ming – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Rìgh-shliochd nam Ming" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_%C3%B1emo%C3%B1anga" title="Ming ñemoñanga – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ming ñemoñanga" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ACn-chh%C3%A8u" title="Mìn-chhèu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mìn-chhèu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="שושלת מינג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שושלת מינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिंग राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" title="Ming Dynasty – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Ming Dynasty" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dinasztia" title="Ming-dinasztia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ming-dinasztia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Մին դինաստիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մին դինաստիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_a_Dinastia" title="Ming a Dinastia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ming a Dinastia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Ming" title="Dinastio Ming – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Dinastio Ming" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingveldi%C3%B0" title="Mingveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mingveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" title="明 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="明" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangsa_Ming" title="Wangsa Ming – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wangsa Ming" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მინის დინასტია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მინის დინასტია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C5%8B_Kewiya%C9%A3_K%C9%A9%C9%96%C9%9Bza%C9%A3" title="Miŋ Kewiyaɣ Kɩɖɛzaɣ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Miŋ Kewiyaɣ Kɩɖɛzaɣ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Мин империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мин империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%84" title="រាជវង្សមិង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រាជវង្សមិង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-knc mw-list-item"><a href="https://knc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mairi_Ming" title="Mairi Ming – Central Kanuri" lang="knc" hreflang="knc" data-title="Mairi Ming" data-language-autonym="Yerwa Kanuri" data-language-local-name="Central Kanuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yerwa Kanuri</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%85%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC" title="명나라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="명나라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternieth_Ming" title="Ternieth Ming – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ternieth Ming" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_Mim" title="Familia Mim – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Familia Mim" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming%C5%B3_dinastija" title="Mingų dinastija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mingų dinastija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minu_dinastija" title="Minu dinastija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Minu dinastija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Минг (династија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Минг (династија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="മിങ് രാജവംശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മിങ് രാജവംശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Мин улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мин улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिंग राजवंश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मिंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA" title="မြင်တိုင်းပြည် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မြင်တိုင်းပြည်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%87" title="مینگ سلسله – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="مینگ سلسله" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिङ वंश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मिङ वंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिङ्ग राजवंश – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मिङ्ग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastie" title="Ming-dynastie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ming-dynastie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming" title="Ming – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ming" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastiet" title="Ming-dynastiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ming-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC" title="ਮਿੰਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਿੰਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastia_Ming" title="Dynastia Ming – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dynastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ACa_Ming" title="Dinastìa Ming – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Dinastìa Ming" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="منگ سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="منگ سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%AB_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D" title="مينګ واکمنه کورنۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مينګ واکمنه کورنۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Империя Мин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Империя Мин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD%D2%91" title="Дінастія Мінґ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Дінастія Мінґ" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Миин династията – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Миин династията" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" title="Ming Dynasty – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ming Dynasty" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF_%DA%AF%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%BB%D9%88" title="منگ گهراڻو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="منگ گهراڻو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="මිං රාජවංශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මිං රාජවංශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ming dynasty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming" title="Ming – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ming" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Велико Царство Минг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Велико Царство Минг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingdynastin" title="Mingdynastin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mingdynastin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_(nasaba)" title="Ming (nasaba) – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ming (nasaba)" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="மிங் அரசமரபு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மிங் அரசமரபு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="ราชวงศ์หมิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชวงศ์หมิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_imperi%C3%BDasy" title="Min imperiýasy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Min imperiýasy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiyang_Ming" title="Dinastiyang Ming – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Dinastiyang Ming" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tok mw-list-item"><a href="https://tok.wikipedia.org/wiki/tenpo_pi_kulupu_lawa_Min" title="tenpo pi kulupu lawa Min – Toki Pona" lang="tok" hreflang="tok" data-title="tenpo pi kulupu lawa Min" data-language-autonym="Toki pona" data-language-local-name="Toki Pona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Toki pona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Hanedan%C4%B1" title="Ming Hanedanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ming Hanedanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%89%DA%AD_%D8%B3%DB%87%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="مىڭ سۇلالىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مىڭ سۇلالىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Династія Мін – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Династія Мін" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="منگ خاندان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="منگ خاندان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_(sulola)" title="Min (sulola) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Min (sulola)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A0_Minh" title="Nhà Minh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhà Minh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiya_Ming" title="Dinastiya Ming – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Dinastiya Ming" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D" title="明朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="明朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მინიშ დინასტია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მინიშ დინასტია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A2" title="מינג דינאסטיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מינג דינאסטיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingzciuz" title="Mingzciuz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Mingzciuz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" title="明 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="明" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%AAng-ti%C3%A2u" title="Bêng-tiâu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bêng-tiâu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E" title="大明 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大明" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D" title="明朝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="明朝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9903#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</header>
|
||
<div class="vector-page-toolbar">
|
||
<div class="vector-page-toolbar-container">
|
||
<div id="left-navigation">
|
||
<nav aria-label="Namespaces">
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
<li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected mw-list-item vector-tab-noicon"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c" class=""><span>Article</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-talk" class="mw-list-item vector-tab-noicon"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Talk:Ming_dynasty" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t" class=""><span>Talk</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" >
|
||
<input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" >
|
||
<label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span>
|
||
</label>
|
||
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</nav>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible">
|
||
<nav aria-label="Views">
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
<li id="ca-view" class="selected mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible vector-tab-noicon"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" class=""><span>Read</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-viewsource" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible vector-tab-noicon"><a data-mw-interface href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
|
||
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e" class=""><span>View source</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-history" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible vector-tab-noicon"><a data-mw-interface href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h" class=""><span>View history</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-watch" class="mw-watchlink mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&action=watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="" data-mw-interface="1" title="Add this page to your watchlist [w]" accesskey="w"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Watch</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-bookmark" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only reading-lists-bookmark" id="" title="Add this page to your saved items"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-bookmarkOutline mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-bookmarkOutline cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Save</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</nav>
|
||
|
||
<nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools">
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" >
|
||
<input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" >
|
||
<label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-verticalEllipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-verticalEllipsis cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span>
|
||
</label>
|
||
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container">
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</nav>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-column-end no-font-mode-scale">
|
||
<div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container">
|
||
<nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools">
|
||
<div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container">
|
||
|
||
<div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element">
|
||
<div
|
||
class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned"
|
||
data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned"
|
||
data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools"
|
||
data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container"
|
||
data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container"
|
||
>
|
||
<div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin" aria-label="Move Tools to sidebar">move to sidebar</button>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin" aria-label="Hide Tools">hide</button>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-heading">
|
||
Actions
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
<li id="ca-view-more" class="selected mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-eye mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-eye cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Read</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-viewsource-more" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
|
||
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>View source</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-history-more" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>View history</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-watch-more" class="mw-watchlink mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&action=watch" data-mw-interface="1" title="Add this page to your watchlist [w]" accesskey="w" class=""><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Watch</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="ca-bookmark-more" class="mw-list-item vector-menu-item--collapsible"><a data-mw-interface href="#" class="reading-lists-bookmark" title="Add this page to your saved items"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-bookmarkOutline mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-bookmarkOutline cdx-button__icon"></span>
|
||
|
||
<span>Save</span></a>
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-heading">
|
||
General
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
<li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Ming_dynasty" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Ming_dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&oldid=1359687877" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Ming_dynasty&id=1359687877&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMing_dynasty"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&useparsoid=0"><span>Switch to legacy parser</span></a></li><li id="parsermigration-report-bug" class="mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Parsoid/Feedback" title="If you see display errors, it may be due to Parsoid">Report visual bug <span class="parsermigration-report-bug-icon"></span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-heading">
|
||
Print/export
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
<li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Ming_dynasty&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" >
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-heading">
|
||
In other projects
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="vector-menu-content">
|
||
|
||
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
|
||
|
||
<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ming_Dynasty" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9903" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</nav>
|
||
<nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance">
|
||
<div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container">
|
||
<div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element">
|
||
<div
|
||
class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned"
|
||
data-feature-name="appearance-pinned"
|
||
data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance"
|
||
data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container"
|
||
data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container"
|
||
>
|
||
<div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin" aria-label="Move Appearance to sidebar">move to sidebar</button>
|
||
<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin" aria-label="Hide Appearance">hide</button>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</div>
|
||
</nav>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container>
|
||
<div class="vector-body-before-content">
|
||
<div class="mw-indicators">
|
||
<div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File" data-mw='{"caption":"This is a featured article. Click here for more information."}' id="mwDU4"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." id="mwDU8"><img alt="Featured article" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cscr-featured.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" data-file-type="drawing" height="19" width="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwDVA"/></a></span>
|
||
</div></div>
|
||
<div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File" data-mw='{"caption":"This article is semi-protected."}' id="mwAA"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected." id="mwDUw"><img alt="Page semi-protected" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Semi-protection-shackle.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" data-file-type="drawing" height="20" width="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwDU0"/></a></span></div></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ming_Dynasty&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a>)</span></div></div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-subjectpageheader">
|
||
</div><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr" data-mw-parsoid-version="0.24.0.0-alpha14" data-mw-html-version="2.8.0"><section data-mw-section-id="0" id="mwAQ"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none" about="#mwt1" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAg" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Short description","href":"./Template:Short_description"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Imperial dynasty of China (1368–1644)"}},"i":0}}]}'>Imperial dynasty of China (1368–1644)</div><span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt1"><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_with_short_description"/><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata"/></span>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt2" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAw" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Redirect","href":"./Template:Redirect"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ming"},"2":{"wt":"other uses"},"3":{"wt":"Ming (disambiguation)"},"4":{"wt":"and"},"5":{"wt":"Ming Dynasty (disambiguation)"}},"i":0}}]}'><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1353705441" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt3" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+span.mw-empty-elt+.hatnote,.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt2" id="mwBA">"Ming" redirects here. For other uses, see <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_(disambiguation)" title="Ming (disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig">Ming (disambiguation)</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty_(disambiguation)" title="Ming Dynasty (disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig">Ming Dynasty (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
|
||
<p class="mw-empty-elt" id="mwBQ"><span typeof="mw:Nowiki mw:Transclusion" about="#mwt4" id="mwBg" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Pp","href":"./Template:Pp"},"params":{"small":{"wt":"yes"}},"i":0}}]}'></span><meta typeof="mw:Extension/indicator" about="#mwt4" id="mwBw" data-mw='{"name":"indicator","attrs":{"name":"pp-default"},"body":{"extsrc":"[[File:Semi-protection-shackle.svg|20px|link=Wikipedia:Protection policy#semi|alt=Page semi-protected|This article is semi-protected.]]"}}'/><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages#Ming%20dynasty" about="#mwt4" id="mwCA"/>
|
||
<span typeof="mw:Nowiki mw:Transclusion" about="#mwt6" id="mwCQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"CS1 config","href":"./Template:CS1_config"},"params":{"mode":{"wt":"cs2"}},"i":0}}]}'></span>
|
||
<span typeof="mw:Nowiki mw:Transclusion" about="#mwt7" id="mwCg" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Featured article","href":"./Template:Featured_article"},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'></span><meta typeof="mw:Extension/indicator" about="#mwt7" id="mwCw" data-mw='{"name":"indicator","attrs":{"name":"featured-star"},"body":{"extsrc":"[[File:cscr-featured.svg|20x20px |link=Wikipedia:Featured articles* |alt=Featured article |This is a featured article. Click here for more information.]]\n"}}'/><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Featured_articles" about="#mwt7" id="mwDA"/>
|
||
<span typeof="mw:Nowiki mw:Transclusion" about="#mwt9" id="mwDQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Use dmy dates","href":"./Template:Use_dmy_dates"},"params":{"date":{"wt":"January 2025"}},"i":0}}]}'></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_January_2025" about="#mwt9" id="mwDg"/></p>
|
||
<span class="mwb-empty-elt" about="#mwt10" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwDw" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Infobox former country\n","href":"./Template:Infobox_former_country"},"params":{"native_name":{"wt":"{{native name list|tag1=zh|name1=大明|paren1=off|tag2=zh-Latn-pinyin|name2=Dà Míng|paren2=off}}"},"conventional_long_name":{"wt":"Great Ming"},"common_name":{"wt":"Ming dynasty"},"era":{"wt":"[[History of Asia#Early modern|Early modern]]"},"status":{"wt":"Empire"},"government_type":{"wt":"[[Absolute monarchy]]"},"year_start":{"wt":"1368"},"year_end":{"wt":"1644"},"year_exile_start":{"wt":"1644"},"year_exile_end":{"wt":"1683"},"event_start":{"wt":"Established in [[Nanjing]]{{efn|Prior to proclaiming himself emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself [[King of Wu]] in Nanjing in 1364. The regime is known in historiography as the \"Western Wu\" ({{zhi|c=西吳}}).}}"},"date_start":{"wt":"23 January"},"event_end":{"wt":"[[Fall of Beijing]]"},"date_end":{"wt":"25 April"},"event1":{"wt":"[[Beijing]] designated as capital"},"date_event1":{"wt":"28 October 1420"},"event_post":{"wt":"End of the [[Southern Ming]]{{efn|Remnants of the [[House of Zhu|Ming imperial family]], whose regimes are collectively called the Southern Ming in historiography, ruled southern China until 1662. The Ming loyalist state [[Kingdom of Tungning]] on Taiwan lasted until 1683, but it was not ruled by the Zhu clan and thus usually not considered part of the Southern Ming.}}"},"date_post":{"wt":"1662"},"p1":{"wt":"Yuan dynasty"},"s1":{"wt":"Later Jin (1616–1636){{!}}Later Jin"},"s2":{"wt":"Shun dynasty"},"s3":{"wt":"Xi dynasty"},"s4":{"wt":"Southern Ming"},"s5":{"wt":"Qing dynasty"},"image_symbol":{"wt":""},"symbol_type":{"wt":""},"image_map":{"wt":"Map of Ming Chinese empire 1415 (cropped 2).jpg"},"image_map_caption":{"wt":"{{Color sample|#F4E46B}} Ming territory in 1415"},"capital":{"wt":"{{ubl|[[Nanjing]] (1368{{nbnd}}1644)|[[Beijing]] (1403{{nbnd}}1644)}}"},"common_languages":{"wt":"{{cslist|[[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Mandarin]] (official)|{{nowrap|other [[list of varieties of Chinese|Chinese languages]]}}|[[Karluk languages|Turki]]|[[Old Uyghur]]|[[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]]|[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]|[[Jurchen language|Jurchen]]|''and [[Languages of China|others]]''}}"},"religion":{"wt":"{{hlist|[[Heaven worship]]|[[Taoism]]|[[Confucianism]]|[[Buddhism]]|[[Chinese folk religion]]|[[Islam during the Ming dynasty|Islam]]|[[Catholic Church in China|Roman Catholicism]]}}"},"currency":{"wt":"{{indented plainlist|\n* [[Paper money]] (1368{{nbnd}}1450)\n* [[Bimetallism|Bimetallic]] (copper [[Chinese cash (cur{{harvp|Taagepera|1997|p=500}}</ref>"},"stat_area5":{"wt":"6500000"},"GDP_nominal_per_capita":{"wt":"{{decrease}} 19.8 taels{{sfnp|Broadberry|2014|p=19}}"},"module":{"wt":"{{Infobox Chinese\n| child = yes\n| c = 明朝\n| p = Míngcháo\n| w = {{tonesup|Ming2 ch'ao2}}\n| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|m|ing|2|-|ch|ao|2}}\n| y = Mìhng chìuh\n| ci = {{IPAc-yue|m|ing|4|-|c|iu|4}}\n| j = Ming4 ciu4\n| suz = Min<sup>2</sup> zau<sup>2</sup>\n| poj = Bêng tiâu\n| tl = Bîng tiâu\n| altname = Dynastic name\n| c2 = 大明\n| p2 = Dà Míng\n| w2 = {{tonesup|Ta4 Ming2}}\n| y2 = Daaih Mìhng\n| ci2 = {{IPAc-yue|d|aai|6|-|m|ing|4}}\n| wuu2 = Da men\n| j2 = Daai6 ming4\n| poj2 = Tāi-bêng\n| tl2 = Tāi-bîng\n| bpmf = ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ\n| tp = Míngcháo\n| bpmf2 = ㄉㄚˋ ㄇㄧㄥˊ\n| tp2 = Dà Míng\n}}"}},"i":0}}]}'><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1358620234" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt11" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .infobox{margin-left:1em;float:right;clear:right;width:22em}}.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:-3px}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-hiddenrow,body.skin--responsive.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox .infobox-hiddenrow{display:none}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt12" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Template:Infobox country/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style></span><table class="infobox ib-country vcard" about="#mwt10" id="mwEA"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Great Ming</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt13" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style></span><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">大明</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/></li><li><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">Dà Míng</i></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/></li></ul></div><span style="display:none" data-plural="0"></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1368–1644</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless" data-mw='{"caption":"<span style=\"display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;\" title=\"\n#f4e46b\" id=\"mwEQ\"><span class=\"mw-no-invert\" style=\"display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:#F4E46B;color:inherit;forced-color-adjust:none;\" id=\"mwEg\"><span typeof=\"mw:Entity\" id=\"mwEw\"> </span></span></span> Ming territory in 1415"}'><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415_(cropped_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=" Ming territory in 1415"><img alt=" Ming territory in 1415" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415_(cropped_2).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/250px-Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415_%28cropped_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1460" data-file-type="bitmap" height="299" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/500px-Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element"/></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption"><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="
|
||
#f4e46b"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:#F4E46B;color:inherit;forced-color-adjust:none;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span></span></span> Ming territory in 1415</div>
|
||
</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt14" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> (1368<span typeof="mw:Entity"></span><span typeof="mw:Entity">–</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"></span>1644)</li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> (1403<span typeof="mw:Entity"></span><span typeof="mw:Entity">–</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"></span>1644)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1288773161" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt15" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Cslist/styles.css"}}'>.mw-parser-output ul.cslist,.mw-parser-output ul.sslist,.mw-parser-output ul.andlist,.mw-parser-output ul.andlistoxford{margin:0;padding:0;display:inline-block;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output ul.cslist-embedded{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .cslist li,.mw-parser-output .sslist li,.mw-parser-output .andlist li,.mw-parser-output .andlistoxford li{margin:0;padding:0 0.25em 0 0;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:after,.mw-parser-output .andlistoxford li:after{content:", "}.mw-parser-output .sslist li:after{content:"; "}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .sslist li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .andlist li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .andlistoxford li:last-child:after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .andlist li:nth-last-child(2):after{content:" and "}.mw-parser-output .andlistoxford li:nth-last-child(2):after{content:", and "}</style><ul class="cslist"><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Mandarin</a> (official)</li><li><span class="nowrap">other <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">Chinese languages</a></span></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karluk_languages" title="Karluk languages">Turki</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Uyghur" title="Old Uyghur">Old Uyghur</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurchen_language" title="Jurchen language">Jurchen</a></li><li><i>and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">others</a></i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1333133064" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt16" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style></span><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven_worship" title="Heaven worship" class="mw-redirect">Heaven worship</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Islam</a></li><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Roman Catholicism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">Emperor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow infobox-hiddenrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234" about="#mwt17" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1368–1398 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1627–1644 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
|
||
</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asia#Early_modern" title="History of Asia">Early modern</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow infobox-hiddenrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234" about="#mwt18" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>Established in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a><sup about="#mwt19" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"lower-alpha"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-1"}}'><a href="#cite_note-1" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" id="mwFA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwFQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwFg">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwFw">]</span></span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 January 1368</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> designated as capital </div></th><td class="infobox-data">28 October 1420</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Beijing" title="Fall of Beijing" class="mw-redirect">Fall of Beijing</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25 April 1644</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>End of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a><sup about="#mwt21" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"lower-alpha"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-2"}}'><a href="#cite_note-2" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" id="mwGA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwGQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwGg">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwGw">]</span></span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1662</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
|
||
</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1400<sup about="#mwt24" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-3" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-3"}}'><a href="#cite_note-3" id="mwHA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwHQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwHg">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwHw">]</span></span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">3,900,000<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (1,500,000<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>sq<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1450<sup about="#mwt27" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-4" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-4"}}'><a href="#cite_note-4" id="mwIA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwIQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwIg">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwIw">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt30" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-5" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-5"}}'><a href="#cite_note-5" id="mwJA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwJQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwJg">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwJw">]</span></span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">6,500,000<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>km<sup>2</sup> (2,500,000<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>sq<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow infobox-hiddenrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234" about="#mwt32" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1393<sup about="#mwt33" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259_6-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHo19598–9, 22, 259"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-6"}}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-6" id="mwKA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwKQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwKg">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwKw">]</span></span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">65,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1500<sup about="#mwt35" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109_7-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFrank1998109"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109-7"}}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109-7" id="mwLA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwLQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwLg">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwLw">]</span></span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">125,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1600<sup about="#mwt37" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238_8-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238-8"}}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238-8" id="mwMA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwMQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwMg">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwMw">]</span></span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">160,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
|
||
</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt39" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Nobold/styles.css"}}'>.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(nominal)</span></th><td class="infobox-data">estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">•<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File" data-mw='{"caption":"Decrease"}'><span title="Decrease"><img alt="Decrease" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Decrease2.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/20px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" data-file-type="drawing" height="11" width="11" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/40px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" class="mw-file-element"/></span></span> 19.8 taels<sup about="#mwt40" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419_9-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419-9"}}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419-9" id="mwNA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwNQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwNg">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwNw">]</span></span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt42" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"}}'/></span><div class="plainlist " style=" margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;">
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_money" title="Paper money">Paper money</a> (1368<span typeof="mw:Entity"></span><span typeof="mw:Entity">–</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"></span>1450)</li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bimetallism" title="Bimetallism">Bimetallic</a> (copper <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_cash_(currency_unit)" title="Chinese cash (currency unit)">cashes</a> and silver <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tael" title="Tael" class="mw-redirect">taels</a>)</li></ul>
|
||
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">
|
||
<table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;">
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td><td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b></td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;">
|
||
<table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;">
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blank.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" data-file-type="bitmap" height="15" width="22" class="mw-file-element"/></span></span></td>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></td></tr>
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
</tbody></table></td>
|
||
<td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;">
|
||
<table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;">
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616–1636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></td>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blank.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" data-file-type="bitmap" height="15" width="22" class="mw-file-element"/></span></span></td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a></td>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blank.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" data-file-type="bitmap" height="15" width="22" class="mw-file-element"/></span></span></td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_dynasty" title="Xi dynasty">Xi dynasty</a></td>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blank.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" data-file-type="bitmap" height="15" width="22" class="mw-file-element"/></span></span></td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a></td>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blank.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" data-file-type="bitmap" height="15" width="22" class="mw-file-element"/></span></span></td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></td>
|
||
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blank.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" data-file-type="bitmap" height="15" width="22" class="mw-file-element"/></span></span></td></tr>
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
</tbody></table></td></tr>
|
||
</tbody></table></td></tr><tr class="infobox-hiddenrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234" about="#mwt43" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span></td></tr><tr class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234" about="#mwt44" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">明朝</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234" about="#mwt45" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" title="Hanyu Pinyin" class="mw-redirect">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Míngcháo</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Bopo" style="font-style: normal;">ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade–Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Ming<sup>2</sup> ch'ao<sup>2</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Míngcháo</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[mi<span typeof="mw:Entity">̌</span>ŋ<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>ʈʂʰa<span typeof="mw:Entity">̌</span>ʊ]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzhounese" title="Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect">Suzhounese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn">Min<sup>2</sup> zau<sup>2</sup></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Mìhng chìuh</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Ming4 ciu4</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[mɪŋ˩<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>tsʰiw˩]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe̍h-ōe-jī" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Bêng tiâu</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" title="Taiwanese Romanization System" class="mw-redirect">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Bîng tiâu</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234"/></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Dynastic name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">大明</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234" about="#mwt47" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Infobox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" title="Hanyu Pinyin" class="mw-redirect">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Dà Míng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Bopo" style="font-style: normal;">ㄉㄚˋ ㄇㄧㄥˊ</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade–Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Ta<sup>4</sup> Ming<sup>2</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Dà Míng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn">Da men</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Daaih Mìhng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Daai6 ming4</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[taj˨<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>mɪŋ˩]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe̍h-ōe-jī" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Tāi-bêng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" title="Taiwanese Romanization System" class="mw-redirect">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Tāi-bîng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
|
||
</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt48" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwOA" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"History of China","href":"./Template:History_of_China"},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt49" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt50" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt51" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Sidebar/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt52" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt53" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1364279517" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt54" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+span.mw-empty-elt+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt55" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt56" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt57" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt58" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt59" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt60" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt61" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt62" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt63" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt64" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt65" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt66" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt67" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt68" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt69" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt70" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt71" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt72" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt73" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt74" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt75" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt76" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt77" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt78" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt79" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt80" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt81" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt82" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt83" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt84" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt85" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" about="#mwt86" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Plainlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517" about="#mwt87" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbox/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" role="navigation" style="background:#FFEECC;" about="#mwt48" id="mwOQ"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size notpageimage mw-no-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" resource='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:"History_of_China"_for_template_heading.svg' src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/250px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" data-file-type="drawing" height="47" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/500px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8"/></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist">
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
|
||
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left">
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>2.43 Ma</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>12 ka</span>)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_China#Mesolithic" title="Prehistory of China">Mesolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>10</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>7 ka</span>)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>8500</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>2000 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<dl><dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a></b>, <b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></b>, and <b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></b></dd></dl></div></div></td>
|
||
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
|
||
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_China" title="Ancient China" class="mw-redirect">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left">
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>2070</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1600 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1600</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1046 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<dl><dd><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1250</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1046</span> BCE)</span></dd></dl>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1046</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>256 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<dl><dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1046</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>771 BCE</span>)</span></dd>
|
||
<dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>771</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>256 BCE</span>)</span>
|
||
<dl><dd><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>770</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>476 BCE</span>)</span></dd>
|
||
<dd><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>475</span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>– c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>221 BCE</span>)</span></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td>
|
||
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
|
||
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_China" title="Imperial China" class="mw-redirect">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox778"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(221–207 BCE)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BCE – 220 CE)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<dl><dd><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu–Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a> <span class="nowrap">(206–202 BCE)</span></dd>
|
||
<dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BCE – 9/25 CE)</span></dd>
|
||
<dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(9–23 CE)</span></dd>
|
||
<dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(25–220 CE)</span></dd></dl>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(220–280 CE)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<dl><dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></b>, <b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a></b>, and <b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></b></dd></dl>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–420)</span></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
|
||
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox813"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span></td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div>
|
||
<dl><dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266–420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–316)</span></dd>
|
||
<dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266–420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(317–420)</span></dd></dl>
|
||
</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div>
|
||
<ul><li><br/></li>
|
||
<li><br/></li>
|
||
<li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(304–439)</span></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox390"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and<br/>Southern dynasties</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(420–589)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(581–618)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(618–907)</span>
|
||
<ul><li><dl><dd><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> <span class="nowrap">(690–705)</span></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox1180"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span></td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and<br/>Ten Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(907–979)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1279)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<dl><dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1127)</span></dd>
|
||
<dd><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1127–1279)</span></dd></dl>
|
||
</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div>
|
||
<ul><li><br/></li>
|
||
<li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(916–1125)</span></li>
|
||
<li><br/></li>
|
||
<li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1038–1227)</span></li>
|
||
<li><br/></li>
|
||
<li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115–1234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1115–1234)</span></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox291"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1271–1368)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty" class="mw-selflink selflink">Ming</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1368–1644)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1644–1912)</span></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td>
|
||
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
|
||
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_China" title="Modern China" class="mw-redirect">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left">
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912–1949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(mainland, 1912–1949)</span></li></ul>
|
||
<hr/>
|
||
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox690"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em"><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span></td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic<br/>of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1949–present)</span></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(Taiwan,<br/>1949–present)</span></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td>
|
||
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
|
||
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art#History" title="Chinese art">Art history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_cuisine" title="History of Chinese cuisine">Cuisine history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Education history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_history_of_China" title="Environmental history of China">Environmental history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Jewish history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history_of_China" title="Legal history of China">Legal history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_China" title="LGBTQ history in China">LGBTQ history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_China#History" title="Music of China">Music history</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_music" title="Timeline of Chinese music">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">Religion in China</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Buddhism" title="History of Chinese Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_China" title="History of Christianity in China" class="mw-redirect">Christianity</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Daoism</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">Islam</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport_in_China" title="History of sport in China">Sports history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
|
||
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><span class="mw-empty-elt"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064" about="#mwt88" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Hlist/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt89" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Navbar/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style></span><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<p id="mwOg">The <b id="mwOw">Ming dynasty</b>,<!--Please do not add official regional/minority languages here; use the langbox template directly above, included specifically for that purpose--> officially the <b id="mwPA">Great Ming</b>, was an <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_dynasty_of_China" title="Imperial dynasty of China" class="mw-redirect" id="mwPQ">imperial dynasty of China</a> that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire" id="mwPg">Mongol</a>-led <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty" id="mwPw">Yuan dynasty</a>. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_people" title="Han people" class="mw-redirect" id="mwQA">Han people</a>, the majority ethnic group in China. Although the primary capital of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing" id="mwQQ">Beijing</a> fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng" id="mwQg">Li Zicheng</a> (who established the short-lived <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty" id="mwQw">Shun dynasty</a>), numerous <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state" id="mwRA">rump regimes</a> ruled by remnants of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu" id="mwRQ">Ming imperial family</a>, collectively called the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming" id="mwRg">Southern Ming</a>, survived until 1662.</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwRw">The Ming dynasty's founder, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor" id="mwSA">Hongwu Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt90" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwSQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"r.","href":"./Template:R."},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt91" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwSg\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span></span>1368–1398), attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty: the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China" id="mwSw">navy</a>'s dockyards in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing" id="mwTA">Nanjing</a> were the largest in the world.<sup about="#mwt92" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271_10-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271-10"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"271"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271-10" id="mwTQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwTg"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwTw">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwUA">]</span></span></a></sup> He also took great care breaking the power of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch_(court_official)#China" title="Eunuch (court official)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwUQ">court eunuchs</a> and unrelated magnates, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfeoffing" title="Enfeoffing" class="mw-redirect" id="mwUg">enfeoffing</a> his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the <i id="mwUw"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang-Ming_Zuxun" title="Huang-Ming Zuxun" id="mwVA">Huang-Ming Zuxun</a></i>, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed when his teenage successor, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jianwen_Emperor" title="Jianwen Emperor" id="mwVQ">Jianwen Emperor</a>, attempted to curtail his uncle's power, prompting the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingnan_campaign" title="Jingnan campaign" id="mwVg">Jingnan campaign</a>, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor" id="mwVw">Yongle Emperor</a> in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it Beijing, constructed the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City" id="mwWA">Forbidden City</a>, and restored the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Canal_of_China" title="Grand Canal of China" class="mw-redirect" id="mwWQ">Grand Canal</a> and the primacy of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination" id="mwWg">imperial examinations</a> in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrats" title="Scholar-bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" id="mwWw">scholar-bureaucrats</a>. One eunuch, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He" id="mwXA">Zheng He</a>, led seven enormous <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages" id="mwXQ">voyages of exploration</a> into the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean" id="mwXg">Indian Ocean</a> as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. Hongwu and Yongle emperors had also <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia" id="mwXw">expanded the empire's rule</a> into <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia" id="mwYA">Inner Asia</a>.</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwYQ">The rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yingzong_of_Ming" title="Emperor Yingzong of Ming" id="mwYg">Emperor Yingzong of Ming</a> during the 1449 <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis" id="mwYw">Tumu Crisis</a> ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvee#Imperial_China" title="Corvee" class="mw-redirect" id="mwZA">forced labor</a> constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall" title="Great Wall" class="mw-redirect" id="mwZQ">Great Wall</a> into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwZg"> </span>million,<sup about="#mwt95" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-11" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"lower-alpha"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-11"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"efn","href":"./Template:Efn"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"For the lower population estimate, see {{Harvcol|Fairbank|Goldman|2006|p=128}}; for the higher, see {{Harvcol|Ebrey|1999|p=197}}."}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-11" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" id="mwZw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwaA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwaQ">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwag">]</span></span></a></sup> but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples. <i id="mwaw"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haijin" title="Haijin" id="mwbA">Haijin</a></i> laws intended to protect the coasts from <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_pirates" title="Japanese pirates" class="mw-redirect" id="mwbQ">Japanese pirates</a> instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves.</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwbg">By the 16th century, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery" id="mwbw">expansion of European trade</a>—though restricted to islands near <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou" id="mwcA">Guangzhou</a> such as <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau" id="mwcQ">Macau</a>—spread the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange" id="mwcg">Columbian exchange</a> of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing chili peppers to <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuan_cuisine" title="Sichuan cuisine" id="mwcw">Sichuan cuisine</a> and highly productive maize and potatoes, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_Portugal#Triangular_trade_between_China,_Japan,_and_Europe" title="Economic history of Portugal" id="mwdA">Portuguese</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain#Gold_and_silver_from_the_New_World" title="Economic history of Spain" id="mwdQ">Spanish</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500–1815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)" id="mwdg">Dutch</a> trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila_galleons" title="Manila galleons" class="mw-redirect" id="mwdw">South American</a> silver. This abundance of specie re-monetized the Ming economy, whose paper <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_currency" title="Ming currency" class="mw-redirect" id="mweA">money</a> had suffered repeated <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation" id="mweQ">hyperinflation</a> and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterodoxy" title="Heterodoxy" id="mweg">heterodoxy</a> introduced by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming" id="mwew">Wang Yangming</a> permitted a more accommodating attitude. <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Juzheng" title="Zhang Juzheng" id="mwfA">Zhang Juzheng</a>'s initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture was produced by the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age" id="mwfQ">Little Ice Age</a>. The value of silver rapidly increased because of a disruption in the supply of imported silver from Spanish and Portuguese sources, making it impossible for Chinese farmers to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty" id="mwfg">an epidemic</a>, the dynasty collapsed in 1644 as Li Zicheng's rebel forces entered Beijing. Li then established the Shun dynasty, but it was defeated shortly afterwards by the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu" title="Manchu" class="mw-redirect" id="mwfw">Manchu</a>-led <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Banner" title="Eight Banner" class="mw-redirect" id="mwgA">Eight Banner</a> armies of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty" id="mwgQ">Qing dynasty</a>, with the help of the defecting Ming general <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui" id="mwgg">Wu Sangui</a>.</p>
|
||
|
||
<meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" id="mwgw" data-mw='{"autoGenerated":true}'/></section><section data-mw-section-id="1" id="mwhA" aria-labelledby="History"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt98" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwhQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"History of the Ming dynasty"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt99" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt98" id="mwhg">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="History of the Ming dynasty">History of the Ming dynasty</a></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt100" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwhw" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"For timeline","href":"./Template:For_timeline"},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt101" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt100" id="mwiA">For a chronological guide, see <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Timeline of the Ming dynasty">Timeline of the Ming dynasty</a>.</div>
|
||
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="2" id="mwiQ" aria-labelledby="Founding"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding">Founding</h3></div>
|
||
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="3" id="mwig" aria-labelledby="Revolt_and_rebel_rivalry"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolt_and_rebel_rivalry">Revolt and rebel rivalry</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt102" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwiw" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Red Turban Rebellion"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt103" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt102" id="mwjA">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" title="Red Turban Rebellion" class="mw-redirect">Red Turban Rebellion</a></div>
|
||
<p id="mwjQ">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol" title="Mongol" class="mw-redirect" id="mwjg">Mongol</a>-led <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty" id="mwjw">Yuan dynasty</a> (1271–1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming. Explanations for the demise of the Yuan include institutionalized ethnic discrimination against the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_people" title="Han people" class="mw-redirect" id="mwkA">Han people</a> that stirred resentment and rebellion, overtaxation of areas hard-hit by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation" id="mwkQ">inflation</a>, and massive flooding of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River" id="mwkg">Yellow River</a> as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects. Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levees" title="Levees" class="mw-redirect" id="mwkw">levees</a> of the Yellow River.<sup about="#mwt104" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150_12-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-12"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Gascoigne"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"p":{"wt":"150"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-12" id="mwlA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwlQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwlg">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwlw">]</span></span></a></sup> A number of Han groups revolted, including the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" title="Red Turban Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" id="mwmA">Red Turbans</a> in 1351. The Red Turbans were affiliated with the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Lotus_Societies" title="White Lotus Societies" id="mwmQ">White Lotus</a>, a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism" id="mwmg">Buddhist</a> secret society. <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Yuanzhang" title="Zhu Yuanzhang" class="mw-redirect" id="mwmw">Zhu Yuanzhang</a> was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352; he soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander.<sup about="#mwt107" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191_13-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191-13"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"190–191"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191-13" id="mwnA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwnQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwng">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwnw">]</span></span></a></sup> In 1356, Zhu's rebel force captured the city of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing" id="mwoA">Nanjing</a>,<sup about="#mwt110" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151_14-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151-14"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Gascoigne"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"p":{"wt":"151"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151-14" id="mwoQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwog"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwow">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwpA">]</span></span></a></sup> which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty.</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwpQ">With the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Youliang" title="Chen Youliang" id="mwpg">Chen Youliang</a>, in the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Poyang" title="Battle of Lake Poyang" id="mwpw">Battle of Lake Poyang</a>, arguably the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history" title="Largest naval battle in history" id="mwqA">largest naval battle in history</a>. Known for its ambitious use of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ships" title="Fire ships" class="mw-redirect" id="mwqQ">fire ships</a>, Zhu's force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650,000-strong. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze" id="mwqg">Yangtze</a> valley and cementing his power in the south. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while a guest of Zhu, there was no one left who was remotely capable of contesting his march to the throne, and he made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq" class="mw-redirect" id="mwqw">Dadu</a> (present-day <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing" id="mwrA">Beijing</a>) in 1368.<sup about="#mwt113" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_15-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"191"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15" id="mwrQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwrg"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwrw">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwsA">]</span></span></a></sup> The last Yuan emperor fled north to the upper capital <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu" id="mwsQ">Shangdu</a>, and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground;<sup about="#mwt116" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_15-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"191"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15" id="mwsg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwsw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwtA">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwtQ">]</span></span></a></sup> the city was renamed Beiping in the same year.<sup about="#mwt119" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii_16-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii-16"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Naquin"},"2":{"wt":"2000"},"p":{"wt":"xxxiii"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii-16" id="mwtg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwtw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwuA">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwuQ">]</span></span></a></sup> Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or "Vastly Martial", as his <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name" id="mwug">era name</a>.</p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="4" id="mwuw" aria-labelledby="Reign_of_the_Hongwu_Emperor"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reign_of_the_Hongwu_Emperor">Reign of the Hongwu Emperor</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt122" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwvA" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"further","href":"./Template:Further"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Reforms of the Hongwu Emperor"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt123" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt122" id="mwvQ">Further information: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforms_of_the_Hongwu_Emperor" title="Reforms of the Hongwu Emperor">Reforms of the Hongwu Emperor</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwvg"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwvw"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg/250px-A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="3101" data-file-height="5050" data-file-type="bitmap" height="326" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg/500px-A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwwA"/></a><figcaption id="mwwQ">Portrait of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor" id="mwwg">Hongwu Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt124" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwww" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1368"},"2":{"wt":"1398"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt125" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwxA\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1368–1398</span>)</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwxQ">The Hongwu Emperor made an immediate effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a <span about="#mwt126" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwxg" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"convert","href":"./Template:Convert"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"48"},"2":{"wt":"km"},"3":{"wt":"mi"},"adj":{"wt":"mid"},"4":{"wt":"-long"}},"i":0}}]}'>48-kilometre-long (30</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt126"> </span><span about="#mwt126">mi)</span> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Wall_of_Nanjing" title="City Wall of Nanjing" id="mwxw">wall around Nanjing</a>, as well as new palaces and government halls.<sup about="#mwt127" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_15-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"191"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15" id="mwyA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwyQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwyg">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwyw">]</span></span></a></sup> The <i id="mwzA"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming" id="mwzQ">History of Ming</a></i>—the official dynastic history compiled in 1739 by the subsequent <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty" id="mwzg">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1912)—states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian" title="Confucian" class="mw-redirect" id="mwzw">Confucian</a> law code, the <i id="mw0A"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Ming_Code" title="Great Ming Code" id="mw0Q">Great Ming Code</a></i>, which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Code" title="Tang Code" id="mw0g">Tang Code</a> of 653.<sup about="#mwt130" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025_17-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025-17"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Andrew"},"2":{"wt":"Rapp"},"3":{"wt":"2000"},"p":{"wt":"25"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025-17" id="mw0w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw1A"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw1Q">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw1g">]</span></span></a></sup> The Hongwu Emperor organized a military system known as the <i id="mw1w"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weisuo_system" title="Weisuo system" class="mw-redirect" id="mw2A">weisuo</a></i>, which was similar to the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fubing_system" title="Fubing system" id="mw2Q"><i id="mw2g">fubing</i> system</a> of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty" id="mw2w">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907).</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mw3A">In 1380 the Hongwu Emperor had the Chancellor <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Weiyong" title="Hu Weiyong" id="mw3Q">Hu Weiyong</a> executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that the Hongwu Emperor abolished the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_(China)" title="Chancellor (China)" class="mw-redirect" id="mw3g">Chancellery</a> and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor, a precedent mostly followed throughout the Ming period.<sup about="#mwt133" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193_18-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-18"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"192–193"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-18" id="mw3w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw4A"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw4Q">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw4g">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt136" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130_19-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130-19"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Fairbank"},"2":{"wt":"Goldman"},"3":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"130"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130-19" id="mw4w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw5A"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw5Q">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw5g">]</span></span></a></sup> With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, the Hongwu Emperor established the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embroidered_Uniform_Guard" title="Embroidered Uniform Guard" id="mw5w">Embroidered Uniform Guard</a>, a network of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police" id="mw6A">secret police</a> drawn from his own palace guard. Some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule.<sup about="#mwt139" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193_18-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-18"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"192–193"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-18" id="mw6Q"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw6g"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw6w">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw7A">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt142" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130_20-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130-20"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Fairbank"},"2":{"wt":"Goldman"},"3":{"wt":"2006"},"pp":{"wt":"129–130"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130-20" id="mw7Q"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw7g"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw7w">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw8A">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mw8Q">The Hongwu Emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence. However, he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority in China and other areas ruled by the Yuan. He continued policies of the Yuan dynasty such as continued request for Korean concubines and eunuchs, Mongol-style hereditary military institutions, Mongol-style clothing and hats, promoting archery and horseback riding, and having large numbers of Mongols serve in the Ming military. Until the late 16th century, Mongols still constituted one-third of officers serving in capital forces like the Embroidered Uniform Guard, and other peoples such as <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurchens" title="Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" id="mw8g">Jurchens</a> were also prominent.<sup about="#mwt145" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399_21-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399-21"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"2008"},"pp":{"wt":"365–399"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399-21" id="mw8w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw9A"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw9Q">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw9g">]</span></span></a></sup> He frequently wrote to Mongol, Japanese, Korean, Jurchen, Tibetan, and Southwest frontier rulers offering advice on their governmental and dynastic policy, and insisted on leaders from these regions visiting the Ming capital for audiences. He resettled 100,000 Mongols into his territory, with many serving as guards in the capital. The emperor also strongly advertised the hospitality and role granted to Chinggisid nobles in his court.<sup about="#mwt148" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9_22-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9-22"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"2020"},"pp":{"wt":"8–9"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9-22" id="mw9w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw-A"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw-Q">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw-g">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mw-w">The Hongwu Emperor insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject and had been divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view the Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist or reject it. The Hongwu Emperor emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause.<sup about="#mwt151" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146_23-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146-23"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"2019"},"pp":{"wt":"144–146"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146-23" id="mw_A"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mw_Q"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mw_g">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket" id="mw_w">]</span></span></a></sup> The Ming used the tribute they received from former Yuan vassals as proof that the Ming had taken over the Yuan's legitimacy. Tribute missions were regularly celebrated with music and dance in the Ming court.<sup about="#mwt154" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248_24-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson2019248"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248-24"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"2019"},"p":{"wt":"248"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248-24" id="mwAQA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAQE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAQI">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAQM">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="5" id="mwAQQ" aria-labelledby="South-Western_frontier"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South-Western_frontier">South-Western frontier</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt157" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAQU" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ming conquest of Yunnan"},"2":{"wt":"Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt158" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt157" id="mwAQY">Main articles: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Ming conquest of Yunnan">Ming conquest of Yunnan</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miao_rebellions_in_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty">Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty</a></div>
|
||
<p id="mwAQc">In 1381, the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dali" title="Kingdom of Dali" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAQg">Kingdom of Dali</a> following the successful effort by Hui Muslim Ming armies to defeat Mongol and Hui Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan holding out in Yunnan. The Hui troops under General <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Ying" title="Mu Ying" id="mwAQk">Mu Ying</a>, who was appointed Governor of Yunnan, were resettled in the region as part of a colonization effort.<sup about="#mwt159" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon199934_25-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEDillon199934"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon199934-25"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Dillon"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"34"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon199934-25" id="mwAQo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAQs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAQw">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAQ0">]</span></span></a></sup> By the end of the 14th century, some 200,000 military colonists settled some 2,000,000 <i id="mwAQ4">mu</i> (350,000 acres) of land in what is now <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan" id="mwAQ8">Yunnan</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou" id="mwARA">Guizhou</a>. Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make-up of the region, since formerly more than half of the population were non-Han peoples. Resentment over such massive changes in population and the resulting government presence and policies sparked more <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people" id="mwARE">Miao</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yao_people_(Asia)" title="Yao people (Asia)" id="mwARI">Yao</a> revolts in 1464 to 1466, which were crushed by an army of 30,000 Ming troops (including 1,000 Mongols) joining the 160,000 local <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi" id="mwARM">Guangxi</a>. After the scholar and philosopher <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming" id="mwARQ">Wang Yangming</a> (1472–1529) suppressed another rebellion in the region, he advocated single, unitary administration of Chinese and indigenous ethnic groups in order to bring about <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinicisation" title="Sinicisation" class="mw-redirect" id="mwARU">sinicisation</a> of the local peoples.<sup about="#mwt162" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197_26-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197-26"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"197"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197-26" id="mwARY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwARc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwARg">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwARk">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="6" id="mwARo" aria-labelledby="Campaign_in_the_North-East"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Campaign_in_the_North-East">Campaign in the North-East</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt165" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwARs" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Manchuria under Ming rule"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt166" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt165" id="mwARw">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria under Ming rule</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAR0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAR4"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG/250px-Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG" decoding="async" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" data-file-type="bitmap" height="188" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG/500px-Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwAR8"/></a><figcaption id="mwASA">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China" id="mwASE">Great Wall of China</a>: while segments of earlier <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth" id="mwASI">rammed earth</a> walls were first unified by the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty" id="mwASM">Qin</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty" id="mwASQ">Han</a> dynasties, the vast majority of the brick and stone Great Wall is a product of the Ming.</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwASU">After the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, Manchuria remained under control of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan" id="mwASY">Northern Yuan</a> based in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia" id="mwASc">Mongolia</a>. <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naghachu" title="Naghachu" id="mwASg">Naghachu</a>, a former Yuan official and a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uriankhai" title="Uriankhai" id="mwASk">Uriankhai</a> general of the Northern Yuan, won hegemony over the Mongol tribes in Manchuria (the former Yuan province of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaoyang_province" title="Liaoyang province" class="mw-redirect" id="mwASo">Liaoyang</a>). He grew strong in the northeast, with forces large enough (numbering hundreds of thousands) to threaten invasion of the newly founded Ming dynasty in order to restore the Mongols to power in China. The Ming decided to defeat him instead of waiting for the Mongols to attack. In 1387 the Ming sent <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_military_campaign_against_Naghachu" title="Ming military campaign against Naghachu" class="mw-redirect" id="mwASs">a military campaign to attack Naghachu</a>,<sup about="#mwt167" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144_27-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144-27"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wang"},"2":{"wt":"2011"},"pp":{"wt":"101–144"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144-27" id="mwASw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAS0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAS4">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAS8">]</span></span></a></sup> which concluded with the surrender of Naghachu and Ming conquest of Manchuria.</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwATA">The early Ming court could not, and did not, aspire to the control imposed upon the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurchens" title="Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" id="mwATE">Jurchens</a> in Manchuria by the Mongols, yet it created a norm of organization that would ultimately serve as the main instrument for the relations with peoples along the northeast frontiers. By the end of the Hongwu Emperor's reign, the essentials of a policy toward the Jurchens had taken shape. Most of the inhabitants of Manchuria, except for the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Jurchens" title="Wild Jurchens" id="mwATI">Wild Jurchens</a>, were at peace with China. In 1409, under the Yongle Emperor, the Ming established the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurgan_Regional_Military_Commission" title="Nurgan Regional Military Commission" id="mwATM">Nurgan Regional Military Commission</a> on the banks of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_River" title="Amur River" class="mw-redirect" id="mwATQ">Amur River</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishiha" title="Yishiha" id="mwATU">Yishiha</a>, a eunuch of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haixi_Jurchens" title="Haixi Jurchens" id="mwATY">Haixi Jurchen</a> origin, was ordered to lead an expedition to the mouth of the Amur to <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacification_(military_action)" title="Pacification (military action)" id="mwATc">pacify</a> the Wild Jurchens. After the death of Yongle Emperor, the Nurgan Regional Military Commission was abolished in 1435, and the Ming court ceased to have substantial activities there, although the guards continued to exist in Manchuria. Throughout its existence, the Ming established a total of 384 guards (<span lang="zh" about="#mwt170" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwATg" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"zhi","href":"./Template:Zhi"},"params":{"c":{"wt":"衛"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/>衛</span>, <i id="mwATk">wei</i>) and 24 battalions (<span lang="zh" about="#mwt171" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwATo" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"zhi","href":"./Template:Zhi"},"params":{"c":{"wt":"所"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text"/>所</span>, <i id="mwATs">suo</i>) in Manchuria, but these were probably only nominal offices and did not necessarily imply political control.<sup about="#mwt172" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsai2001159_28-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTETsai2001159"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2001159-28"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Tsai"},"2":{"wt":"2001"},"p":{"wt":"159"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2001159-28" id="mwATw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAT0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAT4">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAT8">]</span></span></a></sup> By the late Ming period, Ming's political presence in Manchuria has declined significantly.</p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="7" id="mwAUA" aria-labelledby="Relations_with_Tibet"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Tibet">Relations with Tibet</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt175" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAUE" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ming–Tibet relations"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt176" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt175" id="mwAUI">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming–Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Ming–Tibet relations</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAUM"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra,_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAUQ"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra,_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg/250px-17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1776" data-file-height="2300" data-file-type="bitmap" height="298" width="230" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg/500px-17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.9" id="mwAUU"/></a><figcaption id="mwAUY">A 17th-century Tibetan <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka" id="mwAUc">thangka</a> of Guhyasamaja Akshobhyavajra; the Ming court gathered various tribute items that were native products of Tibet (such as thangkas),<sup about="#mwt181" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-29" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-29"}}'><a href="#cite_note-29" id="mwAUg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAUk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAUo">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAUs">]</span></span></a></sup> and in return granted gifts to Tibetan tribute-bearers.<sup about="#mwt177" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41_30-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41-30"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wang"},"2":{"wt":"Nyima"},"3":{"wt":"1997"},"pp":{"wt":"39–41"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41-30" id="mwAUw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAU0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAU4">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAU8">]</span></span></a></sup></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwAVA">The <i id="mwAVE">History of Ming</i> states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet" id="mwAVI">Tibet</a> and conferring new princely titles on leaders of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism" id="mwAVM">Tibetan Buddhist sects</a>.<sup about="#mwt186" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-31" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-31"}}'><a href="#cite_note-31" id="mwAVQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAVU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAVY">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAVc">]</span></span></a></sup> However, Turrell V. Wylie states that censorship in the <i id="mwAVg">History of Ming</i> in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming era.<sup about="#mwt182" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWylie2003470"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wylie"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"p":{"wt":"470"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32" id="mwAVk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAVo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAVs">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAVw">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAV0">Modern scholars debate whether the Ming had <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty" id="mwAV4">sovereignty</a> over Tibet. Some believe it was a relationship of loose <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty" id="mwAV8">suzerainty</a> that was largely cut off when the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiajing_Emperor" title="Jiajing Emperor" id="mwAWA">Jiajing Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt187" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAWE" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1521"},"2":{"wt":"1567"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt188" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAWI\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1521–1567</span>) persecuted Buddhism in favor of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism" id="mwAWM">Taoism</a> at court.<sup about="#mwt189" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWylie2003470"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wylie"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"p":{"wt":"470"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32" id="mwAWQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAWU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAWY">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAWc">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt192" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40_33-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40-33"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wang"},"2":{"wt":"Nyima"},"3":{"wt":"1997"},"pp":{"wt":"1–40"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40-33" id="mwAWg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAWk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAWo">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAWs">]</span></span></a></sup> Others argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship.<sup about="#mwt195" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200152_34-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENorbu200152"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200152-34"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Norbu"},"2":{"wt":"2001"},"p":{"wt":"52"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200152-34" id="mwAWw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAW0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAW4">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAW8">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt198" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732_35-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732-35"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Kolmaš"},"2":{"wt":"1967"},"p":{"wt":"32"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732-35" id="mwAXA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAXE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAXI">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAXM">]</span></span></a></sup> Others note the Ming need for Central Asian horses and the need to maintain the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_during_the_Ming_dynasty#Tribute_and_exchanging_tea_for_horses" title="Tibet during the Ming dynasty" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAXQ">tea-horse trade</a>.<sup about="#mwt201" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40_36-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40-36"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wang"},"2":{"wt":"Nyima"},"3":{"wt":"1997"},"pp":{"wt":"39–40"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40-36" id="mwAXU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAXY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAXc">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAXg">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt204" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475,_478_37-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475, 478"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475,_478-37"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Sperling"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"pp":{"wt":"474–475, 478"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475,_478-37" id="mwAXk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAXo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAXs">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAXw">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt207" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273_38-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273-38"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Perdue"},"2":{"wt":"2000"},"p":{"wt":"273"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273-38" id="mwAX0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAX4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAX8">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAYA">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt210" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29_39-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29-39"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Kolmaš"},"2":{"wt":"1967"},"pp":{"wt":"28–29"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29-39" id="mwAYE"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAYI"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAYM">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAYQ">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAYU">The Ming sporadically sent armed forays into Tibet during the 14th century, which the Tibetans successfully resisted.<sup about="#mwt213" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161_40-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTELanglois1988139, 161"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161-40"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Langlois"},"2":{"wt":"1988"},"pp":{"wt":"139, 161"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161-40" id="mwAYY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAYc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAYg">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAYk">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt216" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418_41-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418-41"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Geiss"},"2":{"wt":"1988"},"pp":{"wt":"417–418"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418-41" id="mwAYo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAYs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAYw">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAY0">]</span></span></a></sup> Several scholars point out that unlike the preceding Mongols, the Ming did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet.<sup about="#mwt219" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227_42-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227-42"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"227"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227-42" id="mwAY4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAY8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAZA">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAZE">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt222" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738_43-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738-43"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wang"},"2":{"wt":"Nyima"},"3":{"wt":"1997"},"p":{"wt":"38"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738-43" id="mwAZI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAZM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAZQ">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAZU">]</span></span></a></sup> The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor" id="mwAZY">Wanli Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt225" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAZc" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1572"},"2":{"wt":"1620"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt226" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAZg\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1572–1620</span>) attempted to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations in the wake of a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tibet#The_origin_of_the_title_of_'Dalai_Lama'" title="History of Tibet" id="mwAZk">Mongol–Tibetan alliance</a> initiated in 1578, an alliance which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Qing dynasty in their support for the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama" id="mwAZo">Dalai Lama</a> of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug" id="mwAZs">Yellow Hat</a> sect.<sup about="#mwt227" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWylie2003470"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wylie"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"p":{"wt":"470"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32" id="mwAZw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAZ0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAZ4">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAZ8">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt230" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31_44-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31-44"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Kolmaš"},"2":{"wt":"1967"},"pp":{"wt":"30–31"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31-44" id="mwAaA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAaE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAaI">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAaM">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt233" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978_45-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978-45"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Goldstein"},"2":{"wt":"1997"},"p":{"wt":"8"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978-45" id="mwAaQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAaU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAaY">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAac">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt246" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-46" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-46"}}'><a href="#cite_note-46" id="mwAag"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAak"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAao">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAas">]</span></span></a></sup> By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdo" title="Amdo" id="mwAaw">Amdo</a> region, culminating in the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Tibet" title="Mongol conquest of Tibet" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAa0">conquest of Tibet</a> by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Güshi_Khan" title="Güshi Khan" id="mwAa4">Güshi Khan</a> (1582–1655) in 1642,<sup about="#mwt236" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-3" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWylie2003470"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wylie"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"p":{"wt":"470"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32" id="mwAa8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAbA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAbE">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAbI">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt239" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35_47-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35-47"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Kolmaš"},"2":{"wt":"1967"},"pp":{"wt":"34–35"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35-47" id="mwAbM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAbQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAbU">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAbY">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt242" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9_48-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9-48"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Goldstein"},"2":{"wt":"1997"},"pp":{"wt":"6–9"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9-48" id="mwAbc"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAbg"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAbk">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAbo">]</span></span></a></sup> establishing the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate" id="mwAbs">Khoshut Khanate</a>.</p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section><section data-mw-section-id="8" id="mwAbw" aria-labelledby="Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor">Reign of the Yongle Emperor</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt247" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAb0" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Yongle Emperor"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt248" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt247" id="mwAb4">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt249" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAb8" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Further","href":"./Template:Further"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ming dynasty in Inner Asia"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt250" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt249" id="mwAcA">Further information: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming dynasty in Inner Asia</a></div>
|
||
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="9" id="mwAcE" aria-labelledby="Rise_to_power"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_to_power">Rise to power</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAcI"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_assis_de_l'empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAcM"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_assis_de_l'empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg/250px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="13737" data-file-height="19935" data-file-type="bitmap" height="290" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg/500px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwAcQ"/></a><figcaption id="mwAcU">Portrait of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor" id="mwAcY">Yongle Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt251" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAcc" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1402"},"2":{"wt":"1424"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt252" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAcg\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1402–1424</span>)</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwAck">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor" id="mwAco">Hongwu Emperor</a> specified his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor, and he assumed the throne as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jianwen_Emperor" title="Jianwen Emperor" id="mwAcs">Jianwen Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt253" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAcw" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1398"},"2":{"wt":"1402"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt254" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAc0\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1398–1402</span>) after the Hongwu Emperor's death in 1398. The Jianwen Emperor's uncle Zhu Di, the most powerful of the Hongwu Emperor's sons, opposed his ascension and soon came into conflict with the young emperor.<sup about="#mwt255" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527_49-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson2000527"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527-49"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"2000"},"p":{"wt":"527"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527-49" id="mwAc4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAc8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAdA">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAdE">]</span></span></a></sup> After the Jianwen Emperor arrested many of Zhu Di's associates, Zhu Di plotted a rebellion that sparked a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingnan_campaign" title="Jingnan campaign" id="mwAdI">three-year civil war</a>. Under the pretext of rescuing the Jianwen Emperor from corrupting officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with the Jianwen Emperor himself, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di assumed the throne as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor" id="mwAdM">Yongle Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt258" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAdQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1402"},"2":{"wt":"1424"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt259" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAdU\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1402–1424</span>); his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.<sup about="#mwt260" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284_50-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEAtwell200284"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284-50"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Atwell"},"2":{"wt":"2002"},"p":{"wt":"84"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284-50" id="mwAdY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAdc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAdg">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAdk">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="10" id="mwAdo" aria-labelledby="New_capital_and_foreign_engagement"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_capital_and_foreign_engagement">New capital and foreign engagement</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt263" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAds" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"further","href":"./Template:Further"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt264" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt263" id="mwAdw">Further information: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor's_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols">Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols</a></div>
|
||
<p id="mwAd0">The Yongle Emperor demoted Nanjing to a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in Beijing. Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily.<sup about="#mwt265" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272_51-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272-51"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"272"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272-51" id="mwAd4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAd8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAeA">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAeE">]</span></span></a></sup> At the center was the political node of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_City_(Beijing)" title="Imperial City (Beijing)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAeI">Imperial City</a>, and at the center of this was the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City" id="mwAeM">Forbidden City</a>, the palatial residence of the emperor and his family. By 1553, the Outer City was added to the south, which brought the overall size of Beijing to <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles mw:Transclusion" about="#mwt268" id="mwAeQ" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Fraction/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"convert","href":"./Template:Convert"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"4 by 4+1/2"},"2":{"wt":"mi"},"3":{"wt":"km"},"round":{"wt":"0.5"},"abbr":{"wt":"off"},"order":{"wt":"flip"}},"i":0}}]}'>.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span about="#mwt268">6.5 by 7 kilometres (4 by </span><span class="frac" about="#mwt268">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">⁄</span><span class="den">2</span></span><span about="#mwt268"> miles)</span>.<sup about="#mwt270" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194_52-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194-52"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"194"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194-52" id="mwAeU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAeY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAec">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAeg">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAek"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noel_2005_Pékin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_âmes.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAeo"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noel_2005_Pékin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_âmes.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg/250px-Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" data-file-type="bitmap" height="188" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg/500px-Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwAes"/></a><figcaption id="mwAew">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_tombs" title="Ming tombs" id="mwAe0">Ming tombs</a>, located <span about="#mwt273" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAe4" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"convert","href":"./Template:Convert"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"50"},"2":{"wt":"km"},"3":{"wt":"mi"},"abbr":{"wt":"on"}},"i":0}}]}'>50</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt273"> </span><span about="#mwt273">km (31</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt273"> </span><span about="#mwt273">mi)</span> north of Beijing</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAe8">Beginning in 1405, the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch" id="mwAfA">eunuch</a> commander <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He" id="mwAfE">Zheng He</a> (1371–1433) as the admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for international <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure_voyages" title="Treasure voyages" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAfI">tributary missions</a>. Among the kingdoms visited by Zheng He, the Yongle Emperor proclaimed the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin" title="Kingdom of Cochin" id="mwAfM">Kingdom of Cochin</a> to be its protectorate.<sup about="#mwt282" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-53" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-53"}}'><a href="#cite_note-53" id="mwAfQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAfU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAfY">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAfc">]</span></span></a></sup> The Chinese had <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Imperial_China" title="Foreign relations of Imperial China" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAfg">sent diplomatic missions</a> over land since the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty" id="mwAfk">Han dynasty</a> (202<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwAfo"> </span>BCE<span typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Entity" about="#mwt274" id="mwAfs" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"snd","href":"./Template:Snd"},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt274">–</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt274"> </span>220<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwAfw"> </span>CE) and engaged in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Economy of the Song dynasty" id="mwAf0">private overseas trade</a>, but these missions were unprecedented in grandeur and scale. To service seven different tributary voyages, the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419, including <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_treasure_ship" title="Chinese treasure ship" id="mwAf4">treasure ships</a> measuring <span about="#mwt275" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAf8" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"convert","href":"./Template:Convert"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"112"},"2":{"wt":"to"},"3":{"wt":"134"},"4":{"wt":"m"},"5":{"wt":"ft"},"abbr":{"wt":"on"}},"i":0}}]}'>112 to 134</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt275"> </span><span about="#mwt275">m (367 to 440</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt275"> </span><span about="#mwt275">ft)</span> in length and <span about="#mwt276" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAgA" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"convert","href":"./Template:Convert"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"45"},"2":{"wt":"to"},"3":{"wt":"54"},"4":{"wt":"m"},"5":{"wt":"ft"},"abbr":{"wt":"on"}},"i":0}}]}'>45 to 54</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt276"> </span><span about="#mwt276">m (148 to 177</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt276"> </span><span about="#mwt276">ft)</span> in width.<sup about="#mwt277" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137_54-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137-54"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Fairbank"},"2":{"wt":"Goldman"},"3":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"137"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137-54" id="mwAgE"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAgI"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAgM">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAgQ">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAgU">The Yongle Emperor used <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing" id="mwAgY">woodblock printing</a> to spread Chinese culture. He also <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty_military_conquests" title="Ming dynasty military conquests" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAgc">used the military</a> to expand China's borders. This included the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" title="Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAgg">brief occupation of Vietnam</a>, from the initial invasion in 1406 until the Ming withdrawal in 1427 as a result of protracted <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lam_Sơn_uprising" title="Lam Sơn uprising" id="mwAgk">guerrilla warfare</a> led by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lê_Lợi" title="Lê Lợi" id="mwAgo">Lê Lợi</a>, the founder of the Vietnamese <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lê_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty" id="mwAgs">Lê dynasty</a>.<sup about="#mwt283" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327_55-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327-55"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wang"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"317–327"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327-55" id="mwAgw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAg0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAg4">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAg8">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section><section data-mw-section-id="11" id="mwAhA" aria-labelledby="Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols">Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt286" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAhE" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Tumu Crisis"},"2":{"wt":"Rebellion of Cao Qin"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt287" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt286" id="mwAhI">Main articles: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis">Tumu Crisis</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellion_of_Cao_Qin" title="Rebellion of Cao Qin">Rebellion of Cao Qin</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAhM"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAhQ"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/250px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2063" data-file-height="4096" data-file-type="bitmap" height="397" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/500px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwAhU"/></a><figcaption id="mwAhY">A Bengali envoy presenting a giraffe as a tributary gift in the name of King <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saifuddin_Hamza_Shah" title="Saifuddin Hamza Shah" id="mwAhc">Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah</a> of Bengal (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt288" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAhg" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1410"},"2":{"wt":"1412"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt289" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAhk\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1410–1412</span>) to the Yongle Emperor</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwAho">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats" id="mwAhs">Oirat</a> leader <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esen_Tayisi" title="Esen Tayisi" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAhw">Esen Tayisi</a> launched an invasion into Ming China in July 1449. The chief eunuch <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(eunuch)" title="Wang Zhen (eunuch)" id="mwAh0">Wang Zhen</a> encouraged the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhengtong_Emperor" title="Zhengtong Emperor" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAh4">Zhengtong Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt290" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAh8" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1435"},"2":{"wt":"1449"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt291" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAiA\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1435–1449</span>) to lead a force personally to face the Oirats after a recent Ming defeat; the emperor left the capital and put his half-brother <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Qiyu" title="Zhu Qiyu" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAiE">Zhu Qiyu</a> in charge of affairs as temporary regent. On 8 September, Esen routed Zhengtong's army, and Zhengtong was captured—an event known as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis" id="mwAiI">Tumu Crisis</a>.<sup about="#mwt292" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273_56-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-56"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"273"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-56" id="mwAiM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAiQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAiU">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAiY">]</span></span></a></sup> The Oirats held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor's younger brother assumed the throne under the era name <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingtai_Emperor" title="Jingtai Emperor" id="mwAic">Jingtai</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt295" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAig" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1449"},"2":{"wt":"1457"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt296" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAik\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1449–1457</span>); the Oirats were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor's confidant and defense minister <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_Qian" title="Yu Qian" id="mwAio">Yu Qian</a> (1398–1457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Holding the Zhengtong Emperor in captivity was a useless bargaining chip for the Oirats as long as another sat on his throne, so they released him back into Ming China.<sup about="#mwt297" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273_56-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-56"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"273"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-56" id="mwAis"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAiw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAi0">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAi4">]</span></span></a></sup> The former emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457 known as the "Wresting the Gate Incident".<sup about="#mwt300" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson199983_57-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson199983"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199983-57"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"83"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199983-57" id="mwAi8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAjA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAjE">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAjI">]</span></span></a></sup> The former emperor retook the throne under the new era name <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yingzong_of_Ming" title="Emperor Yingzong of Ming" id="mwAjM">Tianshun</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt303" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAjQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1457"},"2":{"wt":"1464"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt304" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAjU\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1457–1464</span>).</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAjY">Tianshun proved to be a troubled time and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic. On 7 August 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin and his Ming troops of Mongol descent <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellion_of_Cao_Qin" title="Rebellion of Cao Qin" id="mwAjc">staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor</a> out of fear of being next on his purge-list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident.<sup about="#mwt305" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85_58-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85-58"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"84–85"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85-58" id="mwAjg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAjk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAjo">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAjs">]</span></span></a></sup> Cao's rebel force managed to set fire to the western and eastern gates of the Imperial City (doused by rain during the battle) and killed several leading ministers before his forces were finally cornered and he was forced to commit suicide.<sup about="#mwt308" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–108_59-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson199979, 101–108"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–108-59"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"79, 101–108"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–108-59" id="mwAjw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAj0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAj4">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAj8">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAkA">While the Yongle Emperor had staged <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongle_Emperor's_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols" id="mwAkE">five major offensives north</a> of the Great Wall against the Mongols and the Oirats, the constant threat of Oirat incursions prompted the Ming authorities to fortify the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century; nevertheless, John Fairbank notes that "it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly expressed China's siege mentality."<sup about="#mwt311" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139_60-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139-60"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Fairbank"},"2":{"wt":"Goldman"},"3":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"139"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139-60" id="mwAkI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAkM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAkQ">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAkU">]</span></span></a></sup> Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops.<sup about="#mwt314" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208_61-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208-61"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"208"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208-61" id="mwAkY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAkc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAkg">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAkk">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="12" id="mwAko" aria-labelledby="Decline"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div>
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="13" id="mwAks" aria-labelledby="Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor">Reign of the Wanli Emperor</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAkw"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MingShenzong1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAk0"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MingShenzong1.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/MingShenzong1.jpg/250px-MingShenzong1.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="7874" data-file-height="11349" data-file-type="bitmap" height="288" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/MingShenzong1.jpg/500px-MingShenzong1.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwAk4"/></a><figcaption id="mwAk8">Portrait of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor" id="mwAlA">Wanli Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt317" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAlE" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1572"},"2":{"wt":"1620"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt318" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAlI\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1572–1620</span>)</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwAlM">The reign of the Wanli Emperor (1572–1620) featured many problems, some of them fiscal in nature. In the beginning of his reign, Wanli surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs. His Grand Secretary <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Juzheng" title="Zhang Juzheng" id="mwAlQ">Zhang Juzheng</a> (1572–1582) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances;<sup about="#mwt319" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195831_62-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195831"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831-62"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"31"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831-62" id="mwAlU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAlY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAlc">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAlg">]</span></span></a></sup> officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. Over time Wanli grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials' sight.<sup about="#mwt322" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199916_63-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199916"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199916-63"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"16"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199916-63" id="mwAlk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAlo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAls">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAlw">]</span></span></a></sup> Scholar-officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor.<sup about="#mwt325" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199917_64-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199917"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-64"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"17"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-64" id="mwAl0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAl4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAl8">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAmA">]</span></span></a></sup> There were several military campaigns during the Wanli Emperor's reign, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordos_campaign_(1592)" title="Ordos campaign (1592)" id="mwAmE">Ordos campaign</a>, the response to the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozhou_rebellion" title="Bozhou rebellion" id="mwAmI">Bozhou rebellion</a>, and the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imjin_War" title="Imjin War" id="mwAmM">Imjin War</a>.<sup about="#mwt342" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-65" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-65"}}'><a href="#cite_note-65" id="mwAmQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAmU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAmY">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAmc">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt328" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125_66-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125-66"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Swope"},"2":{"wt":"2011"},"pp":{"wt":"122–125"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125-66" id="mwAmg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAmk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAmo">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAms">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt331" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120_67-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120-67"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Xie"},"2":{"wt":"2013"},"pp":{"wt":"118–120"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120-67" id="mwAmw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAm0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAm4">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAm8">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt334" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165,_281_68-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165, 281"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165,_281-68"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Herman"},"2":{"wt":"2007"},"pp":{"wt":"164–165, 281"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165,_281-68" id="mwAnA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAnE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAnI">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAnM">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt337" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140_69-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENess1998139–140"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140-69"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ness"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"139–140"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140-69" id="mwAnQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAnU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAnY">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAnc">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="14" id="mwAng" aria-labelledby="Role_of_eunuchs"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_eunuchs">Role of eunuchs</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAnk"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAno"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg/250px-Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" data-file-type="bitmap" height="167" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg/500px-Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwAns"/></a><figcaption id="mwAnw"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianqi_Emperor" title="Tianqi Emperor" id="mwAn0">Tianqi-era</a> teacups, from the Nantoyōsō Collection in Japan; the Tianqi Emperor was heavily influenced and largely controlled by the eunuch <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wei_Zhongxian" title="Wei Zhongxian" id="mwAn4">Wei Zhongxian</a> (1568–1627).</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAn8">The Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs during the Yongle Emperor's reign (1402–1424) and afterwards managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials. The Yongle Emperor put 75 eunuchs in charge of foreign policy; they traveled frequently to vassal states including Annam, Mongolia, the Ryukyu Islands, and Tibet and less frequently to farther-flung places like Japan and Nepal. In the later 15th century, however, eunuch envoys generally only traveled to Korea.<sup about="#mwt343" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120_70-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120-70"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Tsai"},"2":{"wt":"1996"},"pp":{"wt":"119–120"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120-70" id="mwAoA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAoE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAoI">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAoM">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAoQ">The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy.<sup about="#mwt346" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195_71-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195-71"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"194–195"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195-71" id="mwAoU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAoY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAoc">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAog">]</span></span></a></sup> Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as Wang Zhen, Wang Zhi, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Jin" title="Liu Jin" id="mwAok">Liu Jin</a>, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the Wanli Emperor increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes.<sup about="#mwt349" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199917_64-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199917"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-64"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"17"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-64" id="mwAoo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAos"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAow">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAo0">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt352" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195811_72-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195811"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811-72"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"11"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811-72" id="mwAo4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAo8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwApA">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwApE">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwApI">The eunuch <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wei_Zhongxian" title="Wei Zhongxian" id="mwApM">Wei Zhongxian</a> (1568–1627) dominated the court of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianqi_Emperor" title="Tianqi Emperor" id="mwApQ">Tianqi Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt355" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwApU" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1620"},"2":{"wt":"1627"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt356" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwApY\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1620–1627</span>) and had his political rivals tortured to death, mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donglin_movement" title="Donglin movement" id="mwApc">Donglin Society</a>. He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire, and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Architecture of the Ming dynasty" id="mwApg">building the previous emperor's tombs</a>. His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belittling his political opponents.<sup about="#mwt357" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18_73-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199917–18"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18-73"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"17–18"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18-73" id="mwApk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwApo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAps">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwApw">]</span></span></a></sup> Constant changes at court became the norm, and there was also an intensification of natural disasters, epidemics, rebellions, and foreign invasions. Although the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor" id="mwAp0">Chongzhen Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt360" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAp4" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1627"},"2":{"wt":"1644"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt361" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAp8\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1627–1644</span>) dismissed Wei, who later committed suicide,<sup about="#mwt362" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613_74-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613-74"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Atwell"},"2":{"wt":"1988"},"pp":{"wt":"612–613"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613-74" id="mwAqA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAqE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAqI">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAqM">]</span></span></a></sup> problems involving palace eunuchs persisted until the fall of the dynasty, which occurred less than twenty years later.<sup about="#mwt365" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24_75-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24-75"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"21–24"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24-75" id="mwAqQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAqU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAqY">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAqc">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="15" id="mwAqg" aria-labelledby="Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters">Economic breakdown and natural disasters</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt368" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAqk" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"further","href":"./Template:Further"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"The General Crisis"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt369" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt368" id="mwAqo">Further information: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAqs"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ch'iu_Ying_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAqw"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ch'iu_Ying_001.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg/250px-Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1567" data-file-type="bitmap" height="194" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg/500px-Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwAq0"/></a><figcaption id="mwAq4"><i id="mwAq8">Spring morning in a Han palace</i>, by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying" id="mwArA">Qiu Ying</a> (1494–1552); excessive luxury and decadence marked the late Ming period, spurred by the enormous state <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion" id="mwArE">bullion</a> of incoming silver and by private transactions involving silver.</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwArI"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Imperial_'dragon'_throne_carpet,_Ming_Dynasty,_16th_century.png" class="mw-file-description" id="mwArM"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Imperial_'dragon'_throne_carpet,_Ming_Dynasty,_16th_century.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png/250px-Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png" decoding="async" data-file-width="1214" data-file-height="1086" data-file-type="bitmap" height="224" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png/500px-Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwArQ"/></a><figcaption id="mwArU">An imperial throne carpet with double dragon and seed pearl motif, 16th century</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwArY">During the last years of the Wanli era and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered on a sudden widespread lack of the empire's chief medium of exchange: silver. <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal" id="mwArc">The Portuguese</a> first <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Perestrello" title="Rafael Perestrello" id="mwArg">established trade with China</a> in 1516.<sup about="#mwt370" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124_76-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998124"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124-76"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"124"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124-76" id="mwArk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAro"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwArs">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwArw">]</span></span></a></sup> Following the Ming Emperor's decision to ban direct trade with Japan, Portuguese traders acted as an intermediary between China and Japan by buying Chinese silks from China and selling it to Japan for silver.<sup about="#mwt373" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20_77-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199919–20"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20-77"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"19–20"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20-77" id="mwAr0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAr4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAr8">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAsA">]</span></span></a></sup> After some <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernão_Pires_de_Andrade" title="Fernão Pires de Andrade" id="mwAsE">initial hostilities</a> the Portuguese gained consent from the Ming court in 1557 to settle <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau" title="Macau" id="mwAsI">Macau</a> as their permanent trade base in China.<sup about="#mwt376" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349_78-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349-78"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wills"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"343–349"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349-78" id="mwAsM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAsQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAsU">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAsY">]</span></span></a></sup> Their role in providing silver was gradually surpassed by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire" id="mwAsc">the Spanish</a>,<sup about="#mwt379" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199920_79-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199920"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-79"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"20"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-79" id="mwAsg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAsk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAso">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAss">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt382" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205_80-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998205"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205-80"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"205"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205-80" id="mwAsw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAs0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAs4">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAs8">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt385" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELane2019_81-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTELane2019"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2019-81"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Lane"},"2":{"wt":"2019"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2019-81" id="mwAtA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAtE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAtI">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAtM">]</span></span></a></sup> while even <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Empire" title="Dutch Empire" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAtQ">the Dutch</a> challenged them for control of this trade.<sup about="#mwt388" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208_82-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998206, 208"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208-82"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"206, 208"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208-82" id="mwAtU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAtY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAtc">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAtg">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt391" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353_83-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353-83"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wills"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"349–353"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353-83" id="mwAtk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAto"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAts">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAtw">]</span></span></a></sup> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain" id="mwAt0">Philip IV of Spain</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt394" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAt4" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1621"},"2":{"wt":"1665"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt395" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwAt8\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1621–1665</span>) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain" id="mwAuA">New Spain</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru" id="mwAuE">Peru</a> across the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific" title="Pacific" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAuI">Pacific</a> through the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines" id="mwAuM">Philippines</a> towards China, in favor of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon" id="mwAuQ">shipping silver mined in the Spanish Latin American colonies</a> through Spanish ports. People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. In the 1630s a string of one thousand <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_(Chinese_coin)" title="Cash (Chinese coin)" id="mwAuU">copper coins</a> equaled an ounce of silver; by 1640 that sum could fetch half an ounce; and, by 1643 only one-third of an ounce. For peasants this meant economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and crop sales in copper.<sup about="#mwt396" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21_84-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199920–21"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21-84"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"20–21"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21-84" id="mwAuY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAuc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAug">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAuk">]</span></span></a></sup> Atwell and others have argued that disruptions to silver imports in the 1630s–40s were central to the Ming fiscal collapse.<sup about="#mwt399" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489_85-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489-85"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Atwell"},"2":{"wt":"2005"},"pp":{"wt":"467–489"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489-85" id="mwAuo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAus"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAuw">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAu0">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt402" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34_86-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESo20124, 17–18, 32–34"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34-86"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"So"},"2":{"wt":"2012"},"pp":{"wt":"4, 17–18, 32–34"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34-86" id="mwAu4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAu8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAvA">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAvE">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAvI">Famines became common in northern China in the early 17th century because of unusually dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season—effects of a larger ecological event now known as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age" id="mwAvM">Little Ice Age</a>.<sup about="#mwt405" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199921_87-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199921"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-87"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"21"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-87" id="mwAvQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAvU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAvY">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAvc">]</span></span></a></sup> Famine, alongside tax increases, widespread military desertions, a declining relief system, and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood-control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility.<sup about="#mwt408" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199921_87-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199921"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-87"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"21"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-87" id="mwAvg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAvk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAvo">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAvs">]</span></span></a></sup> The central government, starved of resources, could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Making matters worse, a widespread epidemic, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty" id="mwAvw">Great Plague of 1633–1644</a>, spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan, killing an unknown but large number of people.<sup about="#mwt411" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24_88-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199922–24"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24-88"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"22–24"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24-88" id="mwAv0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAv4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAv8">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAwA">]</span></span></a></sup> One of the deadliest earthquakes of all time, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1556_Shaanxi_earthquake" title="1556 Shaanxi earthquake" id="mwAwE">Shaanxi earthquake of 1556</a>, occurred during the Jiajing Emperor's reign, killing approximately 830,000 people.<sup about="#mwt414" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)_89-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBBC News (2004)"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)-89"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"BBC News (2004)"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)-89" id="mwAwI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAwM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAwQ">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAwU">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section><section data-mw-section-id="16" id="mwAwY" aria-labelledby="Fall_of_the_dynasty"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_dynasty">Fall of the dynasty</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt417" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAwc" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Transition from Ming to Qing"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt418" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt417" id="mwAwg">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a></div>
|
||
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="17" id="mwAwk" aria-labelledby="Rise_of_the_Manchus"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_the_Manchus">Rise of the Manchus</h4></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt419" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwAwo" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"See also","href":"./Template:See_also"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Manchuria under Ming rule"},"2":{"wt":"Jurchen unification"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt420" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt419" id="mwAws">See also: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria under Ming rule</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAww"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanhaiguan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAw0"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanhaiguan.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Shanhaiguan.jpg/250px-Shanhaiguan.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" data-file-type="bitmap" height="188" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Shanhaiguan.jpg/500px-Shanhaiguan.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwAw4"/></a><figcaption id="mwAw8"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass" id="mwAxA">Shanhai Pass</a> along the Great Wall, the gate where the Manchus were repeatedly repelled before being finally let through by Wu Sangui in 1644</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwAxE"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beijingbelltower2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwAxI"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beijingbelltower2.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Beijingbelltower2.jpg/250px-Beijingbelltower2.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" data-file-type="bitmap" height="188" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Beijingbelltower2.jpg/500px-Beijingbelltower2.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwAxM"/></a><figcaption id="mwAxQ">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_Tower_and_Bell_Tower_of_Beijing" title="Drum Tower and Bell Tower of Beijing" id="mwAxU">Drum Tower and Bell Tower of Beijing</a> was built in the Yuan and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Architecture of the Ming dynasty" id="mwAxY">rebuilt in the Ming</a>.</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAxc">Originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power,<sup about="#mwt424" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-90" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-90"}}'><a href="#cite_note-90" id="mwAxg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAxk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAxo">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAxs">]</span></span></a></sup> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci" id="mwAxw">Nurhaci</a>, leader of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jianzhou_Jurchens" title="Jianzhou Jurchens" id="mwAx0">Jianzhou Jurchens</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification" id="mwAx4">unified other Jurchen clans</a> to create a new Manchu ethnic identity. He offered to lead his armies to support Ming and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon" id="mwAx8">Joseon</a> armies against the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592–1598)" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAyA">Japanese invasions of Korea</a> in the 1590s. Ming officials declined the offer, but granted him the title of dragon-tiger general for his gesture. Recognizing the weakness of Ming authority in Manchuria at the time, he consolidated power by co-opting or conquering surrounding territories. In 1616 he declared himself <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)" id="mwAyE">Khan</a> and established the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616–1636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)" id="mwAyI">Later Jin dynasty</a> in reference to the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115–1234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" id="mwAyM">previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty</a>. In 1618, he openly renounced the Ming overlordship and effectively declared war against the Ming with the "<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances" id="mwAyQ">Seven Grievances</a>".<sup about="#mwt421" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28_91-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199927-28"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28-91"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"27-28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28-91" id="mwAyU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAyY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAyc">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAyg">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwAyk">In 1636, Nurhaci's son <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji" id="mwAyo">Hong Taiji</a> renamed his dynasty the "<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Qing" title="Great Qing" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAys">Great Qing</a>" at <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukden" title="Mukden" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAyw">Mukden</a> (modern Shenyang), which had been made their capital in 1625.<sup about="#mwt425" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28_92-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199924, 28"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28-92"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"24, 28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28-92" id="mwAy0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAy4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAy8">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAzA">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt428" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200792_93-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEChang200792"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-93"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Chang"},"2":{"wt":"2007"},"p":{"wt":"92"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-93" id="mwAzE"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAzI"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAzM">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAzQ">]</span></span></a></sup> Hong Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title <i id="mwAzU"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China" id="mwAzY">huangdi</a></i>, declared the Chongde ("Revering Virtue") era, and changed the ethnic name of his people from "Jurchen" to "<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu" title="Manchu" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAzc">Manchu</a>".<sup about="#mwt431" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200792_93-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEChang200792"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-93"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Chang"},"2":{"wt":"2007"},"p":{"wt":"92"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-93" id="mwAzg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAzk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAzo">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAzs">]</span></span></a></sup> In 1636, Banner Armies defeated Joseon during the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Manchu_invasion_of_Korea" title="Second Manchu invasion of Korea" class="mw-redirect" id="mwAzw">Second Manchu invasion of Korea</a> and forced Joseon to become a Qing tributary. Shortly after, the Koreans renounced their long-held loyalty to the Ming dynasty.<sup about="#mwt434" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199931_94-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199931"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199931-94"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"31"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199931-94" id="mwAz0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwAz4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwAz8">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA0A">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="18" id="mwA0E" aria-labelledby="Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse"><span id="Rebellion.2C_invasion.2C_collapse" typeof="mw:FallbackId"></span>Rebellion, invasion, collapse</h4></div>
|
||
<p id="mwA0I">A peasant soldier named <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng" id="mwA0M">Li Zicheng</a> mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the Ming government failed to ship much-needed supplies there. In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service. The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had thirty-six of his fellow rebels executed; Li's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henan" title="Henan" id="mwA0Q">Henan</a> by 1635. By the 1640s, an ex-soldier and rival to Li—<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Xianzhong" title="Zhang Xianzhong" id="mwA0U">Zhang Xianzhong</a> (1606–1647)—had created a firm rebel base in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu" id="mwA0Y">Chengdu</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan" id="mwA0c">Sichuan</a>, with the establishment of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_dynasty" title="Xi dynasty" id="mwA0g">Xi dynasty</a>, while Li's center of power was in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei" id="mwA0k">Hubei</a> with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan.<sup about="#mwt437" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22_95-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199921–22"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22-95"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"21–22"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22-95" id="mwA0o"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA0s"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA0w">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA00">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwA04">In 1640, masses of Chinese peasants who were starving, unable to pay their taxes, and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army, began to form into huge bands of rebels. The Chinese military, caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant revolts in the provinces, essentially fell apart. Unpaid and unfed, the army was defeated by Li Zicheng—now self-styled as the Prince of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty" id="mwA08">Shun</a>—and deserted the capital without much of a fight. On 25 April 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng when the city gates were opened by rebel allies from within. During the turmoil, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chongzhen" title="Chongzhen" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA1A">Chongzhen</a>, the last Ming emperor, accompanied only by a eunuch servant, hanged himself <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilty_Chinese_Scholartree" title="Guilty Chinese Scholartree" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA1E">on a tree in the imperial garden</a> right outside the Forbidden City.<sup about="#mwt440" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199925_96-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199925"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199925-96"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"25"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199925-96" id="mwA1I"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA1M"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA1Q">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA1U">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwA1Y">Seizing opportunity, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners" id="mwA1c">Eight Banners</a> crossed the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall" title="Great Wall" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA1g">Great Wall</a> after the Ming border general <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui" id="mwA1k">Wu Sangui</a> (1612–1678) opened the gates at <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass" id="mwA1o">Shanhai Pass</a>. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus.<sup about="#mwt443" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33_97-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199932–33"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33-97"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"32–33"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33-97" id="mwA1s"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA1w"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA10">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA14">]</span></span></a></sup> The Eight Banners under the Manchu Prince <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon" id="mwA18">Dorgon</a> (1612–1650) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanhaiguan_District" title="Shanhaiguan District" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA2A">Shanhaiguan</a>; the Prince of Shun's army fled the capital on the fourth of June. On 6 June, the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor" id="mwA2E">Shunzhi Emperor</a> ruler of China. After being forced out of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi'an" title="Xi'an" id="mwA2I">Xi'an</a> by the Qing, chased along the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_River_(Hanshui)" title="Han River (Hanshui)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA2M">Han River</a> to <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuchang" title="Wuchang" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA2Q">Wuchang</a>, and finally along the northern border of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi" id="mwA2U">Jiangxi</a>, Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645, thus ending the Shun dynasty. One report says his death was a suicide; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food.<sup about="#mwt446" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199933_98-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199933"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199933-98"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"33"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199933-98" id="mwA2Y"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA2c"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA2g">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA2k">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwA2o">Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, the Ming were not yet totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. These scattered Ming remnants in southern China after 1644 were collectively designated by 19th-century historians as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming" id="mwA2s">Southern Ming</a>.<sup about="#mwt449" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825_99-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825-99"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Dennerline "},"2":{"wt":"1985"},"pp":{"wt":"824–825"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825-99" id="mwA2w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA20"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA24">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA28">]</span></span></a></sup> Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last Southern Ming emperor, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Youlang" title="Zhu Youlang" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA3A">Zhu Youlang</a>, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and executed. In 1683, the Qing forces <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu" id="mwA3E">conquered Taiwan</a> and dismantled the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning" id="mwA3I">Kingdom of Tungning</a>, which had been established by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_Chenggong" title="Zheng Chenggong" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA3M">Zheng Chenggong</a> and was the final stronghold of forces loyal to the Ming dynasty.<sup about="#mwt452" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002122_100-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence2002122"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002122-100"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"2002"},"p":{"wt":"122"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002122-100" id="mwA3Q"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA3U"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA3Y">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA3c">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt455" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003835,_849_101-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEMote2003835, 849"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003835,_849-101"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Mote"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"pp":{"wt":"835, 849"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003835,_849-101" id="mwA3g"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA3k"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA3o">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA3s">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section></section><section data-mw-section-id="19" id="mwA3w" aria-labelledby="Government"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt458" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwA30" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Government of the Ming dynasty"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt459" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt458" id="mwA34">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Government of the Ming dynasty">Government of the Ming dynasty</a></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt460" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwA38" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"See also","href":"./Template:See_also"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"List of emperors of the Ming dynasty"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt461" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt460" id="mwA4A">See also: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">List of emperors of the Ming dynasty</a></div>
|
||
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="20" id="mwA4E" aria-labelledby="Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county"><span id="Province.2C_prefecture.2C_sub-prefecture_and_county" typeof="mw:FallbackId"></span>Province, prefecture, sub-prefecture and county</h3></div>
|
||
<p id="mwA4I">Described as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history" by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_O._Reischauer" title="Edwin O. Reischauer" id="mwA4M">Edwin O. Reischauer</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" title="John K. Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA4Q">John K. Fairbank</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_M._Craig" title="Albert M. Craig" id="mwA4U">Albert M. Craig</a>,<sup about="#mwt462" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFan201697_102-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFan201697"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFan201697-102"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Fan"},"2":{"wt":"2016"},"p":{"wt":"97"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFan201697-102" id="mwA4Y"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA4c"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA4g">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA4k">]</span></span></a></sup> the Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan dynasty, and the thirteen Ming provinces are the precursors of the modern provinces. Throughout the Song dynasty, the largest political division was the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_(country_subdivision)" title="Circuit (country subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA4o">circuit</a>.<sup about="#mwt465" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194_103-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194-103"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Yuan"},"2":{"wt":"1994"},"pp":{"wt":"193–194"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194-103" id="mwA4s"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA4w"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA40">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA44">]</span></span></a></sup> However, after the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingkang_Incident" title="Jingkang Incident" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA48">Jurchen invasion</a> in 1127, the Song court established four semi-autonomous regional command systems based on territorial and military units, with a detached service secretariat that would become the provincial administrations of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.<sup about="#mwt468" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398_104-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398-104"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hartwell"},"2":{"wt":"1982"},"pp":{"wt":"397–398"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398-104" id="mwA5A"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA5E"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA5I">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA5M">]</span></span></a></sup> Copied on the Yuan model, the Ming provincial bureaucracy contained three commissions: one civil, one military, and one for surveillance. Below the level of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_(China)" title="Province (China)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA5Q">province</a> were <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefecture_(China)" title="Prefecture (China)" id="mwA5U">prefectures</a> operating under a prefect (<i id="mwA5Y">zhifu</i> 知府), followed by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" title="Zhou (country subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA5c">subprefectures</a> under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_(China)" title="County (China)" id="mwA5g">county</a>, overseen by a magistrate. Besides the provinces, there were also two large areas that belonged to no province, but were metropolitan areas attached to Nanjing and Beijing.<sup about="#mwt471" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker19585_105-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker19585"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19585-105"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"5"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19585-105" id="mwA5k"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA5o"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA5s">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA5w">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="21" id="mwA50" aria-labelledby="Institutions_and_bureaus"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutions_and_bureaus">Institutions and bureaus</h3></div>
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="22" id="mwA54" aria-labelledby="Institutional_trends"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Institutional_trends">Institutional trends</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwA58"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity_(20220218132818).jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwA6A"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity_(20220218132818).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity_%2820220218132818%29.jpg/250px-Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity_%2820220218132818%29.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="7120" data-file-height="3660" data-file-type="bitmap" height="129" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity_%2820220218132818%29.jpg/500px-Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity_%2820220218132818%29.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwA6E"/></a><figcaption id="mwA6I">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity" title="Palace of Heavenly Purity" id="mwA6M">Palace of Heavenly Purity</a> in the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City" id="mwA6Q">Forbidden City</a></figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwA6U">Departing from the main central administrative system generally known as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries" id="mwA6Y">Three Departments and Six Ministries</a> system, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Government of the Han dynasty" id="mwA6c">which was instituted by various dynasties</a> since the late Han (202<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwA6g"> </span>BCE<span typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Entity" about="#mwt474" id="mwA6k" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"snd","href":"./Template:Snd"},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt474">–</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt474"> </span>220<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwA6o"> </span>CE), the Ming administration had only one department, the Secretariat, that controlled the six ministries. Following the execution of the Chancellor Hu Weiyong in 1380, the Hongwu Emperor abolished the Secretariat, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorate" title="Censorate" id="mwA6s">Censorate</a>, and the Chief Military Commission and personally took charge of the Six Ministries and the regional Five Military Commissions.<sup about="#mwt475" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195828_106-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195828"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-106"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-106" id="mwA6w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA60"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA64">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA68">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt478" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42_107-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEChang2007p. 15, footnote 42"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42-107"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Chang"},"2":{"wt":"2007"},"loc":{"wt":"p. 15, footnote 42"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42-107" id="mwA7A"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA7E"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA7I">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA7M">]</span></span></a></sup> Thus a whole level of administration was cut out and only partially rebuilt by subsequent rulers.<sup about="#mwt481" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195828_106-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195828"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-106"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-106" id="mwA7Q"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA7U"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA7Y">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA7c">]</span></span></a></sup> The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat" id="mwA7g">Grand Secretariat</a>, at the beginning a secretarial institution that assisted the emperor with administrative paperwork, was instituted, but without employing grand counselors, or chancellors.</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwA7k">The Hongwu Emperor sent his heir apparent to Shaanxi in 1391 to 'tour and soothe' (<i id="mwA7o">xunfu</i>) the region; in 1421 the Yongle Emperor commissioned 26 officials to travel the empire and uphold similar investigatory and patrimonial duties. By 1430 these <i id="mwA7s">xunfu</i> assignments became institutionalized as "<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_coordinator" title="Grand coordinator" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA7w">grand coordinators</a>". Hence, the Censorate was reinstalled and first staffed with investigating censors, later with censors-in-chief. By 1453, the grand coordinators were granted the title vice censor-in-chief or assistant censor-in-chief and were allowed direct access to the emperor. As in prior dynasties, the provincial administrations were monitored by a travelling inspector from the Censorate. Censors had the power to impeach officials on an irregular basis, unlike the senior officials who were to do so only in triennial evaluations of junior officials.<sup about="#mwt484" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200716_108-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEChang200716"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200716-108"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Chang"},"2":{"wt":"2007"},"p":{"wt":"16"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200716-108" id="mwA70"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA74"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA78">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA8A">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt487" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195816_109-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195816"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195816-109"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"16"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195816-109" id="mwA8E"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA8I"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA8M">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA8Q">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwA8U">Although decentralization of state power within the provinces occurred in the early Ming, the trend of central government officials delegated to the provinces as virtual provincial governors began in the 1420s. By the late Ming dynasty, there were central government officials delegated to two or more provinces as supreme commanders and viceroys, a system which reined in the power and influence of the military by the civil establishment.<sup about="#mwt490" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195823_110-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195823"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195823-110"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"23"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195823-110" id="mwA8Y"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA8c"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA8g">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA8k">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="23" id="mwA8o" aria-labelledby="Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries">Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwA8s"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwA8w"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg/250px-Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="452" data-file-type="bitmap" height="231" width="230" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.9" id="mwA80"/></a><figcaption id="mwA84">A portrait of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiang_Shunfu" title="Jiang Shunfu" id="mwA88">Jiang Shunfu</a>, an official under the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongzhi_Emperor" title="Hongzhi Emperor" id="mwA9A">Hongzhi Emperor</a>, now in the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_Museum" title="Nanjing Museum" id="mwA9E">Nanjing Museum</a>. The decoration of two <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)" id="mwA9I">cranes</a> on his chest is a "<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_badge" title="Rank badge" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA9M">rank badge</a>" that indicates he was a civil official of the first rank.</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwA9Q">Governmental institutions in China conformed to a similar pattern for some two thousand years, but each dynasty installed special offices and bureaus, reflecting its own particular interests. The Ming administration utilized <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Secretaries" title="Grand Secretaries" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA9U">Grand Secretaries</a> to assist the emperor, handling paperwork under the reign of the Yongle Emperor and later appointed as top officials of agencies and Grand Preceptor, a top-ranking, non-functional civil service post, under the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongxi_Emperor" title="Hongxi Emperor" id="mwA9Y">Hongxi Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt493" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwA9c" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1424"},"2":{"wt":"1425"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt494" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwA9g\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1424–1425</span>). The Grand Secretariat drew its members from the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanlin_Academy" title="Hanlin Academy" id="mwA9k">Hanlin Academy</a> and were considered part of the imperial authority, not the ministerial one (hence being at odds with both the emperor and ministers at times).<sup about="#mwt495" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32_111-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32-111"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"29–32"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32-111" id="mwA9o"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA9s"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA9w">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA90">]</span></span></a></sup> The Secretariat operated as a coordinating agency, whereas the Six Ministries—<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Personnel" title="Ministry of Personnel" id="mwA94">Personnel</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Revenue_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)" id="mwA98">Revenue</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites" id="mwA-A">Rites</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of War (imperial China)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA-E">War</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Justice (imperial China)" id="mwA-I">Justice</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Works_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Public Works (imperial China)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA-M">Public Works</a>—were direct administrative organs of the state:<sup about="#mwt498" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32_112-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32-112"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"31–32"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32-112" id="mwA-Q"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA-U"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA-Y">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA-c">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<ol id="mwA-g"><li id="mwA-k">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Personnel" title="Ministry of Personnel" id="mwA-o">Ministry of Personnel</a> was in charge of appointments, merit ratings, promotions, and demotions of officials, as well as granting of honorific titles.<sup about="#mwt501" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195832_113-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195832"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195832-113"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"32"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195832-113" id="mwA-s"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA-w"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA-0">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA-4">]</span></span></a></sup></li>
|
||
<li id="mwA-8">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Revenue_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)" id="mwA_A">Ministry of Revenue</a> was in charge of gathering census data, collecting taxes, and handling state revenues, while there were two offices of currency that were subordinate to it.<sup about="#mwt504" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195833_114-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195833"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833-114"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"33"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833-114" id="mwA_E"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA_I"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA_M">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA_Q">]</span></span></a></sup></li>
|
||
<li id="mwA_U">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites" id="mwA_Y">Ministry of Rites</a> was in charge of state ceremonies, rituals, and sacrifices; it also oversaw registers for Buddhist and Daoist priesthoods and even the reception of envoys from tributary states.<sup about="#mwt507" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35_115-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35-115"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"33–35"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35-115" id="mwA_c"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA_g"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA_k">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA_o">]</span></span></a></sup></li>
|
||
<li id="mwA_s">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of War (imperial China)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwA_w">Ministry of War</a> was in charge of the appointments, promotions, and demotions of military officers, the maintenance of military installations, equipment, and weapons, as well as the courier system.<sup about="#mwt510" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195835_116-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195835"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195835-116"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"35"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195835-116" id="mwA_0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwA_4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwA_8">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBAA">]</span></span></a></sup></li>
|
||
<li id="mwBAE">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Justice (imperial China)" id="mwBAI">Ministry of Justice</a> was in charge of judicial and penal processes, but had no supervisory role over the Censorate or the Grand Court of Revision.<sup about="#mwt513" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195836_117-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195836"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-117"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"36"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-117" id="mwBAM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBAQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBAU">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBAY">]</span></span></a></sup></li>
|
||
<li id="mwBAc">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Works_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Public Works (imperial China)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBAg">Ministry of Public Works</a> had charge of government construction projects, hiring of artisans and laborers for temporary service, manufacturing government equipment, the maintenance of roads and canals, standardization of weights and measures, and the gathering of resources from the countryside.<sup about="#mwt516" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195836_117-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195836"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-117"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"36"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-117" id="mwBAk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBAo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBAs">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBAw">]</span></span></a></sup></li></ol>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="24" id="mwBA0" aria-labelledby="Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household">Bureaus and offices for the imperial household</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBA4"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBA8"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg/330px-Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1459" data-file-height="519" data-file-type="bitmap" height="107" width="300" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg/960px-Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 1.2" id="mwBBA"/></a><figcaption id="mwBBE"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_coinage_in_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Chinese coinage in the Ming dynasty" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBBI">Ming coinage</a> from the 14th–17th centuries</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBBM">The imperial household was staffed almost entirely by eunuchs and ladies with their own bureaus. Female servants were organized into the Bureau of Palace Attendance, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apparel, Bureau of Foodstuffs, Bureau of the Bedchamber, Bureau of Handicrafts, and Office of Staff Surveillance. Starting in the 1420s, eunuchs began taking over these ladies' positions until only the Bureau of Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained. The Hongwu Emperor had his eunuchs organized into the Directorate of Palace Attendants, but as eunuch power at court increased, so did their administrative offices, with eventual twelve directorates, four offices, and eight bureaus. The dynasty had a vast imperial household, staffed with thousands of eunuchs, who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants. The eunuchs were divided into different directorates in charge of staff surveillance, ceremonial rites, food, utensils, documents, stables, seals, apparel, and so on. The offices were in charge of providing fuel, music, paper, and baths. The bureaus were in charge of weapons, silverwork, laundering, headgear, bronze work, textile manufacture, wineries, and gardens.<sup about="#mwt519" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25_118-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-118"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"24–25"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-118" id="mwBBQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBBU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBBY">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBBc">]</span></span></a></sup> At times, the most influential eunuch in the Directorate of Ceremonial acted as de facto dictator over the state.<sup about="#mwt522" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25_119-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195811, 25"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25-119"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"11, 25"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25-119" id="mwBBg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBBk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBBo">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBBs">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBBw">Although the imperial household was staffed mostly by eunuchs and palace ladies, there was a civil service office called the Seal Office, which cooperated with eunuch agencies in maintaining imperial seals, tallies, and stamps. There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial princes.<sup about="#mwt525" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26_120-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26-120"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"25–26"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26-120" id="mwBB0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBB4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBB8">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBCA">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section><section data-mw-section-id="25" id="mwBCE" aria-labelledby="Personnel"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personnel">Personnel</h3></div>
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="26" id="mwBCI" aria-labelledby="Scholar-officials"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scholar-officials">Scholar-officials</h4></div>
|
||
<p id="mwBCM">The Hongwu Emperor from 1373 to 1384 staffed his bureaus with officials gathered through recommendations only. After that the scholar-officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_examinations" title="Imperial examinations" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBCQ">examination system</a> that was initially established by the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty" id="mwBCU">Sui dynasty</a> (581–618).<sup about="#mwt528" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195812_121-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195812"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195812-121"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"12"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195812-121" id="mwBCY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBCc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBCg">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBCk">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt531" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696_122-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696-122"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"96"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696-122" id="mwBCo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBCs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBCw">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBC0">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt534" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146_123-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-123"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"145–146"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-123" id="mwBC4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBC8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBDA">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBDE">]</span></span></a></sup> Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials (although it was frowned upon for merchants to join); in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Occupations" title="Four Occupations" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBDI">landholding class</a>. However, the government did exact provincial quotas while drafting officials. This was an effort to curb monopolization of power by landholding gentry who came from the most prosperous regions, where education was the most advanced. The expansion of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_of_the_Song_dynasty#Movable_type_printing" title="Technology of the Song dynasty" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBDM">printing industry since Song times</a> enhanced the spread of knowledge and number of potential exam candidates throughout the provinces. For young schoolchildren there were printed multiplication tables and primers for elementary vocabulary; for adult examination candidates there were mass-produced, inexpensive volumes of Confucian classics and successful examination answers.<sup about="#mwt537" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202_124-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202-124"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"198–202"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202-124" id="mwBDQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBDU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBDY">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBDc">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBDg"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming-Beamtenprüfungen1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBDk"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming-Beamtenprüfungen1.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg/250px-Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="1970" data-file-type="bitmap" height="161" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg/500px-Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwBDo"/></a><figcaption id="mwBDs">Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying" id="mwBDw">Qiu Ying</a> (1494–1552).<sup about="#mwt540" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200_125-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200-125"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"200"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200-125" id="mwBD0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBD4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBD8">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBEA">]</span></span></a></sup></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBEE">As in earlier periods, the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts, while the bulk of test material centered on the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Books" title="Four Books" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBEI">Four Books</a> outlined by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi" id="mwBEM">Zhu Xi</a> in the 12th century.<sup about="#mwt543" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198_126-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198-126"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"198"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198-126" id="mwBEQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBEU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBEY">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBEc">]</span></span></a></sup> Ming era examinations were perhaps more difficult to pass since the 1487 requirement of completing the "<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight-legged_essay" title="Eight-legged essay" id="mwBEg">eight-legged essay</a>", a departure from basing essays off progressing literary trends. The exams increased in difficulty as the student progressed from the local level, and appropriate titles were accordingly awarded successful applicants. Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades, each grade divided into two degrees, with ranging salaries (nominally paid in piculs of rice) according to their rank. While provincial graduates who were appointed to office were immediately assigned to low-ranking posts like the county graduates, those who passed the palace examination were awarded a <i id="mwBEk">jinshi</i> ('presented scholar') degree and assured a high-level position.<sup about="#mwt546" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv_127-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv-127"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"xxv"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv-127" id="mwBEo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBEs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBEw">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBE0">]</span></span></a></sup> In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations, the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24,874.<sup about="#mwt549" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14_128-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14-128"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"11–14"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14-128" id="mwBE4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBE8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBFA">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBFE">]</span></span></a></sup> Ebrey states that "there were only two to four thousand of these <i id="mwBFI">jinshi</i> at any given time, on the order of one out of 10,000 adult males." This was in comparison to the 100,000 <i id="mwBFM">shengyuan</i> ('government students'), the lowest tier of graduates, by the 16th century.<sup about="#mwt552" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199_129-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199-129"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"199"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199-129" id="mwBFQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBFU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBFY">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBFc">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBFg"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBFk"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg/500px-PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="1680" data-file-type="bitmap" height="159" width="340" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg/960px-PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 1.35" id="mwBFo"/></a><figcaption id="mwBFs">Processional figurines from the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai" id="mwBFw">Shanghai</a> tomb of Pan Yongzheng, a Ming dynasty official who lived during the 16th century</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBF0">The maximum tenure in office was nine years, but every three years officials were graded on their performance by senior officials. If they were graded as superior then they were promoted, if graded adequate then they retained their ranks, and if graded inadequate they were demoted one rank. In extreme cases, officials would be dismissed or punished. Only capital officials of grade 4 and above were exempt from the scrutiny of recorded evaluation, although they were expected to confess any of their faults. There were over 4,000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years. The Chief Instructor on the prefectural level was classified as equal to a second-grade county graduate. The Supervisorate of Imperial Instruction oversaw the education of the heir apparent to the throne; this office was headed by a Grand Supervisor of Instruction, who was ranked as first class of grade three.<sup about="#mwt555" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26_130-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17, 26"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26-130"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"15–17, 26"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26-130" id="mwBF4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBF8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBGA">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBGE">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBGI">Historians debate whether the examination system expanded or contracted upward social mobility. On the one hand, the exams were graded without regard to a candidate's social background, and were theoretically open to everyone.<sup about="#mwt558" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-131" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"lower-alpha"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-131"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"efn","href":"./Template:Efn"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"For the argument that they increased social mobility see {{harvp|Ho|1962}}."}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-131" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" id="mwBGM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBGQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBGU">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBGY">]</span></span></a></sup> In actual practice, the successful candidates had years of a very expensive, sophisticated tutoring of the sort that wealthy gentry families specialized in providing their talented sons. In practice, 90 percent of the population was ineligible due to lack of education, but the upper 10 percent had equal chances for moving to the top. To be successful young men had to have extensive, expensive training in classical Chinese, the use of Mandarin in spoken conversation, calligraphy, and had to master the intricate poetic requirements of the eight-legged essay. Not only did the traditional gentry dominate the system, they also learned that conservatism and resistance to new ideas was the path to success. For centuries critics had pointed out these problems, but the examination system only became more abstract and less relevant to the needs of China.<sup about="#mwt561" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28_132-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEElman19917–28"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28-132"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Elman"},"2":{"wt":"1991"},"pp":{"wt":"7–28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28-132" id="mwBGc"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBGg"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBGk">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBGo">]</span></span></a></sup> The consensus of scholars is that the eight-legged essay can be blamed as a major cause of "China's cultural stagnation and economic backwardness." However Benjamin Ellman argues there were some positive features, since the essay form was capable of fostering "abstract thinking, persuasiveness, and prosodic form" and that its elaborate structure discouraged a wandering, unfocused narrative".<sup about="#mwt564" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392_133-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEElman2000380, 394, 392"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392-133"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Elman"},"2":{"wt":"2000"},"pp":{"wt":"380, 394, 392"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392-133" id="mwBGs"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBGw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBG0">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBG4">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="27" id="mwBG8" aria-labelledby="Lesser_functionaries"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lesser_functionaries">Lesser functionaries</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBHA"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBHE"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg/500px-Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="749" data-file-height="367" data-file-type="bitmap" height="167" width="340" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 1.35" id="mwBHI"/></a><figcaption id="mwBHM">The Xuande Emperor playing <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuiwan" title="Chuiwan" id="mwBHQ">chuiwan</a> with his eunuchs, a game similar to golf, by an anonymous court painter of the Xuande period (1425–1435)</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBHU">Scholar-officials who entered civil service through examinations acted as executive officials to a much larger body of non-ranked personnel called lesser functionaries. They outnumbered officials by four to one; Charles Hucker estimates that they were perhaps as many as 100,000 throughout the empire. These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies. Yet they should not be confused with lowly lictors, runners, and bearers; lesser functionaries were given periodic merit evaluations like officials and after nine years of service might be accepted into a low civil service rank.<sup about="#mwt567" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195818_134-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195818"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818-134"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"18"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818-134" id="mwBHY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBHc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBHg">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBHk">]</span></span></a></sup> The one great advantage of the lesser functionaries over officials was that officials were periodically rotated and assigned to different regional posts and had to rely on the good service and cooperation of the local lesser functionaries.<sup about="#mwt570" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19_135-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19-135"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"18–19"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19-135" id="mwBHo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBHs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBHw">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBH0">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="28" id="mwBH4" aria-labelledby="Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals"><span id="Eunuchs.2C_princes.2C_and_generals" typeof="mw:FallbackId"></span>Eunuchs, princes, and generals</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBH8"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Detail_of_The_Emperor's_Approach,_Xuande_period.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBIA"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Detail_of_The_Emperor's_Approach,_Xuande_period.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg/250px-Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="4451" data-file-height="4431" data-file-type="bitmap" height="249" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg/500px-Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwBIE"/></a><figcaption id="mwBII">Detail of <i id="mwBIM">The Emperor's Approach</i> showing the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor" id="mwBIQ">Wanli Emperor</a>'s royal carriage being pulled by elephants and escorted by cavalry</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBIU">Eunuchs gained unprecedented power over state affairs during the Ming dynasty. One of the most effective means of control was the secret service stationed in what was called the Eastern Depot at the beginning of the dynasty, later the Western Depot. This secret service was overseen by the Directorate of Ceremonial, hence this state organ's often totalitarian affiliation. Eunuchs had ranks that were equivalent to civil service ranks, only theirs had four grades instead of nine.<sup about="#mwt573" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25_118-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-118"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"24–25"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-118" id="mwBIY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBIc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBIg">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBIk">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt576" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606_136-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606-136"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Mote"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"pp":{"wt":"602–606"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606-136" id="mwBIo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBIs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBIw">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBI0">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBI4">Descendants of the first Ming emperor were made princes and given (typically nominal) military commands, annual stipends, and large estates. The title used was "king" (<span title="Chinese-language text" about="#mwt579" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBI8" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"lang","href":"./Template:Lang"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"zh"},"2":{"wt":"王"}},"i":0}}]}'><span lang="zh">王</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" about="#mwt579" id="mwBJA"/>, <i id="mwBJE">wáng</i>) but—unlike the princes in the Han and Jin dynasties—these estates were not <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudatories" title="Feudatories" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBJI">feudatories</a>, the princes did not serve any administrative function, and they partook in military affairs only during the reigns of the first two emperors.<sup about="#mwt580" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker19588_137-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker19588"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19588-137"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"8"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19588-137" id="mwBJM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBJQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBJU">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBJY">]</span></span></a></sup> The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingnan_Campaign" title="Jingnan Campaign" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBJc">rebellion of the Prince of Yan</a> was justified in part as upholding the rights of the princes, but once the Yongle Emperor was enthroned, he continued his nephew's policy of disarming his brothers and moved their fiefs away from the militarized northern border. Although princes served no organ of state administration, the princes, consorts of the imperial princesses, and ennobled relatives did staff the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court" id="mwBJg">Imperial Clan Court</a>, which supervised the imperial genealogy.<sup about="#mwt583" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195826_138-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195826"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195826-138"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"26"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195826-138" id="mwBJk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBJo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBJs">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBJw">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBJ0">Like scholar-officials, military generals were ranked in a hierarchic grading system and were given merit evaluations every five years (as opposed to three years for officials).<sup about="#mwt586" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195819_139-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195819"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819-139"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"p":{"wt":"19"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819-139" id="mwBJ4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBJ8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBKA">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBKE">]</span></span></a></sup> However, military officers had less prestige than officials. This was due to their hereditary service (instead of solely merit-based) and Confucian values that dictated those who chose the profession of violence (wu) over the cultured pursuits of knowledge (wen).<sup about="#mwt589" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112_140-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112-140"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Fairbank"},"2":{"wt":"Goldman"},"3":{"wt":"2006"},"pp":{"wt":"109–112"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112-140" id="mwBKI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBKM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBKQ">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBKU">]</span></span></a></sup> Although seen as less prestigious, military officers were not excluded from taking civil service examinations, and after 1478 the military even held their own examinations to test military skills.<sup about="#mwt592" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20_141-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20-141"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hucker"},"2":{"wt":"1958"},"pp":{"wt":"19–20"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20-141" id="mwBKY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBKc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBKg">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBKk">]</span></span></a></sup> In addition to taking over the established bureaucratic structure from the Yuan period, the Ming emperors established the new post of the travelling military inspector. In the early half of the dynasty, men of noble lineage dominated the higher ranks of military office; this trend was reversed during the latter half of the dynasty as men from more humble origins eventually displaced them.<sup about="#mwt595" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117_142-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117-142"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Robinson"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"116–117"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117-142" id="mwBKo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBKs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBKw">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBK0">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section></section><section data-mw-section-id="29" id="mwBK4" aria-labelledby="Society_and_culture"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt598" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBK8" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Main","href":"./Template:Main"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Culture of the Ming dynasty"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt599" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt598" id="mwBLA">Main article: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Culture of the Ming dynasty">Culture of the Ming dynasty</a></div>
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="30" id="mwBLE" aria-labelledby="Literature_and_arts"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_arts">Literature and arts</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt600" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBLI" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Further","href":"./Template:Further"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ming dynasty literature"},"2":{"wt":"Ming dynasty painting"},"3":{"wt":"Ming poetry"},"4":{"wt":"Musicians in Ming China"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt601" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt600" id="mwBLM">Further information: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty_literature" title="Ming dynasty literature">Ming dynasty literature</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty_painting" title="Ming dynasty painting">Ming dynasty painting</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_poetry" title="Ming poetry">Ming poetry</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicians_in_Ming_China" title="Musicians in Ming China">Musicians in Ming China</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBLQ"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBLU"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg/250px-Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="3549" data-file-type="bitmap" height="395" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg/500px-Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBLY"/></a><figcaption id="mwBLc"><i id="mwBLg">Lofty <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Lu" title="Mount Lu" id="mwBLk">Mount Lu</a></i>, by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Zhou" title="Shen Zhou" id="mwBLo">Shen Zhou</a>, 1467</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBLs"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBLw"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg/250px-Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2510" data-file-height="4000" data-file-type="bitmap" height="319" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg/500px-Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBL0"/></a><figcaption id="mwBL4">Decorated back of a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipa" title="Pipa" id="mwBL8">pipa</a> from the Ming dynasty</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBMA"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature" id="mwBME">Literature</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting" id="mwBMI">painting</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry" id="mwBMM">poetry</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China" id="mwBMQ">music</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera" id="mwBMU">Chinese opera</a> of various types flourished during the Ming dynasty, especially in the economically prosperous lower Yangzi valley. Although short fiction had been popular as far back as the Tang dynasty (618–907),<sup about="#mwt602" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105_143-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105-143"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"pp":{"wt":"104–105"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105-143" id="mwBMY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBMc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBMg">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBMk">]</span></span></a></sup> and the works of contemporaneous authors such as Xu Guangqi, Xu Xiake, and Song Yingxing were often technical and encyclopedic, the most striking literary development was the vernacular novel. While the gentry elite were educated enough to fully comprehend the language of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese" id="mwBMo">Classical Chinese</a>, those with rudimentary education—such as women in educated families, merchants, and shop clerks—became a large potential audience for literature and performing arts that employed <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese" title="Vernacular Chinese" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBMs">Vernacular Chinese</a>.<sup about="#mwt605" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203_144-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203-144"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"202–203"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203-144" id="mwBMw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBM0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBM4">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBM8">]</span></span></a></sup> Literati scholars edited or developed <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Classical_Novels" title="Four Great Classical Novels" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBNA">major Chinese novels</a> into mature form in this period, such as <i id="mwBNE"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_Margin" title="Water Margin" id="mwBNI">Water Margin</a></i> and <i id="mwBNM"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West" id="mwBNQ">Journey to the West</a></i>. <i id="mwBNU"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Ping_Mei" title="Jin Ping Mei" id="mwBNY">Jin Ping Mei</a></i>, published in 1610, although incorporating earlier material, marks the trend toward independent composition and concern with psychology.<sup about="#mwt608" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182_145-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182-145"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Plaks"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"pp":{"wt":"55–182"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182-145" id="mwBNc"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBNg"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBNk">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBNo">]</span></span></a></sup> In the later years of the dynasty, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_Menglong" title="Feng Menglong" id="mwBNs">Feng Menglong</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling_Mengchu" title="Ling Mengchu" id="mwBNw">Ling Mengchu</a> innovated with vernacular short fiction. Theater scripts were equally imaginative. The most famous, <i id="mwBN0"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Peony_Pavilion" title="The Peony Pavilion" id="mwBN4">The Peony Pavilion</a></i>, was written by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Xianzu" title="Tang Xianzu" id="mwBN8">Tang Xianzu</a> (1550–1616), with its first performance at the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavilion_of_Prince_Teng" title="Pavilion of Prince Teng" id="mwBOA">Pavilion of Prince Teng</a> in 1598.</p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBOE">Informal essay and travel writing was another highlight. <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu_Xiake" title="Xu Xiake" id="mwBOI">Xu Xiake</a> (1587–1641), a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature" id="mwBOM">travel literature</a> author, published his <i id="mwBOQ">Travel Diaries</i> in 404,000 written <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters" id="mwBOU">characters</a>, with information on everything from local <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography" id="mwBOY">geography</a> to <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy" id="mwBOc">mineralogy</a>.<sup about="#mwt611" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524_146-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1959524"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524-146"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1959"},"p":{"wt":"524"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524-146" id="mwBOg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBOk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBOo">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBOs">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt614" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargett198569_147-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHargett198569"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198569-147"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hargett"},"2":{"wt":"1985"},"p":{"wt":"69"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198569-147" id="mwBOw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBO0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBO4">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBO8">]</span></span></a></sup> The first reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing was in 1582; by 1638 the <i id="mwBPA"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peking_Gazette" title="Peking Gazette" id="mwBPE">Peking Gazette</a></i> switched from using <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_print" title="Woodblock print" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBPI">woodblock print</a> to <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type" id="mwBPM">movable type</a> printing.<sup about="#mwt617" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi_148-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-148"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"xxi"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-148" id="mwBPQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBPU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBPY">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBPc">]</span></span></a></sup> The new literary field of the moral guide to business ethics was developed during the late Ming period, for the readership of the merchant class.<sup about="#mwt620" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217_149-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217-149"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"215–217"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217-149" id="mwBPg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBPk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBPo">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBPs">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBPw"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBP0"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg/250px-Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="2118" data-file-type="bitmap" height="392" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg/500px-Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBP4"/></a><figcaption id="mwBP8">Painting of a peddler selling birds, by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji_Sheng" title="Ji Sheng" id="mwBQA">Ji Sheng</a> (計盛), 15th century</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBQE">In contrast to Xu Xiake, who focused on technical aspects in his travel literature, the Chinese poet and official <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Hongdao" title="Yuan Hongdao" id="mwBQI">Yuan Hongdao</a> (1568–1610) used travel literature to express his desires for individualism as well as autonomy from and frustration with Confucian court politics. Yuan desired to free himself from the ethical compromises that were inseparable from the career of a scholar-official. This anti-official sentiment in Yuan's travel literature and poetry was actually following in the tradition of the Song dynasty poet and official <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Shi" title="Su Shi" id="mwBQM">Su Shi</a> (1037–1101). Yuan Hongdao and his two brothers, Yuan Zongdao (1560–1600) and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Zhongdao" title="Yuan Zhongdao" id="mwBQQ">Yuan Zhongdao</a> (1570–1623), were the founders of the Gong'an School of letters.<sup about="#mwt623" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319_150-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319-150"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Chang"},"2":{"wt":"2007"},"pp":{"wt":"318–319"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319-150" id="mwBQU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBQY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBQc">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBQg">]</span></span></a></sup> This highly individualistic school of poetry and prose was criticized by the Confucian establishment for its association with intense sensual lyricism, which was also apparent in Ming vernacular novels such as the <i id="mwBQk">Jin Ping Mei</i>.<sup about="#mwt626" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2007318_151-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEChang2007318"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318-151"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Chang"},"2":{"wt":"2007"},"p":{"wt":"318"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318-151" id="mwBQo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBQs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBQw">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBQ0">]</span></span></a></sup> Yet even gentry and scholar-officials were affected by the new popular romantic literature, seeking gejis as soulmates to re-enact the heroic love stories that arranged marriages often could not provide or accommodate. During the Ming, some gentry dated well-educated gejis outside of marriage and the concubine system. <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gējì" title="Gējì" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBQ4">Gējì</a> culture reshaped the purely sexual relationship with prostitutes into a cultural relationship, and men could even become friends with like-minded gejis.<sup about="#mwt629" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231_152-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231-152"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"229–231"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231-152" id="mwBQ8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBRA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBRE">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBRI">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBRM"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chen_Hongshou,_leaf_album_painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBRQ"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chen_Hongshou,_leaf_album_painting.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg/250px-Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1820" data-file-height="1948" data-file-type="bitmap" height="214" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg/500px-Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBRU"/></a><figcaption id="mwBRY">Painting of flowers, a butterfly, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_scholar's_rocks" title="Chinese scholar's rocks" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBRc">rock sculpture</a> by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Hongshou" title="Chen Hongshou" id="mwBRg">Chen Hongshou</a> (1598–1652); small leaf album paintings like this one first <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Culture of the Song dynasty" id="mwBRk">became popular in the Song dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBRo"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBRs"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg/250px-Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="1010" data-file-type="bitmap" height="283" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg/500px-Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBRw"/></a><figcaption id="mwBR0"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Zhou" title="Shen Zhou" id="mwBR4">Shen Zhou</a> (1427–1509) founded the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_School" title="Wu School" id="mwBR8">Wu School</a> of painting, contributing greatly to Chinese artistic tradition.</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBSA">Famous painters included <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni_Zan" title="Ni Zan" id="mwBSE">Ni Zan</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Qichang" title="Dong Qichang" id="mwBSI">Dong Qichang</a>, as well as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty" id="mwBSM">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Zhou" title="Shen Zhou" id="mwBSQ">Shen Zhou</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Yin" title="Tang Yin" id="mwBSU">Tang Yin</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wen_Zhengming" title="Wen Zhengming" id="mwBSY">Wen Zhengming</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying" id="mwBSc">Qiu Ying</a>. They drew upon the techniques, styles, and complexity in painting achieved by their Song and Yuan predecessors, but added techniques and styles. Well-known Ming artists could make a living simply by painting due to the high prices they demanded for their artworks and the great demand by the highly cultured community to collect precious works of art. The artist Qiu Ying was once paid 2.8<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwBSg"> </span>kg (100<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwBSk"> </span>oz) of silver to paint a long handscroll for the eightieth birthday celebration of the mother of a wealthy patron. Renowned artists often gathered an entourage of followers, some who were amateurs who painted while pursuing an official career and others who were full-time painters.<sup about="#mwt632" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201_153-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201-153"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"201"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201-153" id="mwBSo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBSs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBSw">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBS0">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBS4"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_(1426–35)_imperial_blue_and_white_vase,_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._明宣德_景德鎮窯青花貫耳瓶,_纽约大都博物馆_.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBS8"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_(1426–35)_imperial_blue_and_white_vase,_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._明宣德_景德鎮窯青花貫耳瓶,_纽约大都博物馆_.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_%281426%E2%80%9335%29_imperial_blue_and_white_vase%2C_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._%E6%98%8E%E5%AE%A3%E5%BE%B7_%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE%E7%AA%AF%E9%9D%92%E8%8A%B1%E8%B2%AB%E8%80%B3%E7%93%B6%2C_%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E5%A4%A7%E9%83%BD%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="2146" data-file-type="bitmap" height="390" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_%281426%E2%80%9335%29_imperial_blue_and_white_vase%2C_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._%E6%98%8E%E5%AE%A3%E5%BE%B7_%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE%E7%AA%AF%E9%9D%92%E8%8A%B1%E8%B2%AB%E8%80%B3%E7%93%B6%2C_%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E5%A4%A7%E9%83%BD%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBTA"/></a><figcaption id="mwBTE">A <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuande_Emperor" title="Xuande Emperor" id="mwBTI">Xuande</a> period (1426–1435) imperial <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_and_white_porcelain" title="Blue and white porcelain" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBTM">blue and white</a> vase<span typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Entity" about="#mwt635" id="mwBTQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"snd","href":"./Template:Snd"},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'> </span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt635">–</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt635"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art" id="mwBTU">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBTY">The period was also renowned for ceramics and porcelains. The major production center for porcelain was the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingdezhen_porcelain#Ming" title="Jingdezhen porcelain" id="mwBTc">imperial kilns at Jingdezhen</a> in Jiangxi, most famous in the period for <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_and_white_porcelain" title="Blue and white porcelain" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBTg">blue and white porcelain</a>, but also producing other styles. The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehua_porcelain_factories" title="Dehua porcelain factories" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBTk">Dehua porcelain factories</a> in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian" id="mwBTo">Fujian</a> catered to European tastes by creating <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_export_porcelain" title="Chinese export porcelain" id="mwBTs">Chinese export porcelain</a> by the late 16th century. Individual potters also became known, such as <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He_Chaozong" title="He Chaozong" id="mwBTw">He Chaozong</a>, who became famous in the early 17th century for his style of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanc-de-Chine" title="Blanc-de-Chine" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBT0">white porcelain</a> sculpture. In <i id="mwBT4">The Ceramic Trade in Asia</i>, Chuimei Ho estimates that about 16% of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe, while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia.<sup about="#mwt636" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206_154-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998206"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206-154"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"206"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206-154" id="mwBT8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBUA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBUE">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBUI">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBUM"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carved_lacquer" title="Carved lacquer" id="mwBUQ">Carved designs in lacquerware</a> and designs glazed onto <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain" id="mwBUU">porcelain</a> wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy, alongside embroidered silks and wares in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_jade" title="Chinese jade" id="mwBUY">jade</a>, ivory, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloisonné" title="Cloisonné" id="mwBUc">cloisonné</a>. The houses of the rich were also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latticework" title="Latticework" id="mwBUg">latticework</a>. The writing materials in a scholar's private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal.<sup about="#mwt639" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199910_155-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199910"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-155"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"10"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-155" id="mwBUk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBUo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBUs">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBUw">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBU0">Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered on these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scammers who themselves made imitations and false attributions.<sup about="#mwt642" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199910_155-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199910"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-155"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"10"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-155" id="mwBU4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBU8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBVA">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBVE">]</span></span></a></sup> The Jesuit <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci" id="mwBVI">Matteo Ricci</a> while staying in Nanjing wrote that Chinese scam artists were ingenious at making forgeries and huge profits.<sup about="#mwt645" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225_156-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225-156"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"224–225"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225-156" id="mwBVM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBVQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBVU">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBVY">]</span></span></a></sup> However, there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur; <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Tong" title="Liu Tong" id="mwBVc">Liu Tong</a> (died 1637) wrote a book printed in 1635 that told his readers how to spot fake and authentic pieces of art.<sup about="#mwt648" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225_157-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998225"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225-157"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"225"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225-157" id="mwBVg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBVk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBVo">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBVs">]</span></span></a></sup> He revealed that a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuande" title="Xuande" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBVw">Xuande</a> era (1426–1435) bronze work could be authenticated by judging its sheen; porcelain wares from the Yongle era (1402–1424) could be judged authentic by their thickness.<sup about="#mwt651" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226_158-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226-158"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"225–226"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226-158" id="mwBV0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBV4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBV8">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBWA">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="31" id="mwBWE" aria-labelledby="Religion"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt654" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBWI" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"See also","href":"./Template:See_also"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Islam during the Ming dynasty"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt655" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt654" id="mwBWM">See also: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Islam during the Ming dynasty</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBWQ"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBWU"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG/250px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG" decoding="async" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1728" data-file-type="bitmap" height="300" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG/500px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBWY"/></a><figcaption id="mwBWc">Glazed stoneware statue of a Taoist deity, 16th century</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBWg">The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the various forms of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion" id="mwBWk">Chinese folk religion</a> and the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Teachings" title="Three Teachings" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBWo">Three Teachings</a>—<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism" id="mwBWs">Confucianism</a>, Taoism, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism" id="mwBWw">Buddhism</a>. The Yuan-supported Tibetan lamas fell from favor, and the early Ming emperors particularly favored Taoism, granting its practitioners many positions in the state's ritual offices. The Hongwu Emperor curtailed the cosmopolitan culture of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and the prolific Prince of Ning <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Quan" title="Zhu Quan" id="mwBW0">Zhu Quan</a> even composed one encyclopedia attacking Buddhism as a foreign "mourning cult", deleterious to the state, and another encyclopedia that subsequently joined the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoist_canon" title="Taoist canon" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBW4">Taoist canon</a>.<sup about="#mwt656" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang201211_159-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWang201211"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201211-159"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wang"},"2":{"wt":"2012"},"p":{"wt":"11"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201211-159" id="mwBW8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBXA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBXE">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBXI">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBXM"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam" id="mwBXQ">Islam</a> was also well established in China, with a history traditionally traced to <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa'd_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas" id="mwBXU">Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas</a> during the Tang dynasty, and enjoying strong official support <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty" id="mwBXY">under the Yuan</a>. Although this patronage was sharply curtailed under the Ming dynasty, several prominent Muslims remained influential in the early Ming period, most notably the powerful eunuch Zheng He. Some Hui scholars have identified several generals of the Hongwu Emperor—including Chang Yuchun, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lan_Yu_(general)" title="Lan Yu (general)" id="mwBXc">Lan Yu</a>, Ding Dexing, and Mu Ying—as Muslims; however, these claims are disputed by non-Muslim sources.<sup about="#mwt659" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipman199838–39_160-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTELipman199838–39"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELipman199838–39-160"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Lipman"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"38–39"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipman199838–39-160" id="mwBXg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBXk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBXo">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBXs">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBXw"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:He_Chaozong_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBX0"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:He_Chaozong_1.JPG" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/He_Chaozong_1.JPG/250px-He_Chaozong_1.JPG" decoding="async" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" data-file-type="bitmap" height="300" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/He_Chaozong_1.JPG/500px-He_Chaozong_1.JPG 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBX4"/></a><figcaption id="mwBX8">Bodhisattva <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manjusri" title="Manjusri" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBYA">Manjusri</a> in <i id="mwBYE"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanc-de-Chine" title="Blanc-de-Chine" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBYI">Blanc-de-Chine</a></i>, by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He_Chaozong" title="He Chaozong" id="mwBYM">He Chaozong</a>, 17th century<sup about="#mwt662" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172_161-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172-161"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"pp":{"wt":"171–172"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172-161" id="mwBYQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBYU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBYY">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBYc">]</span></span></a></sup></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBYg">The establishment of the Ming dynasty was initially devastating to Christianity. In his first year of rule, the Hongwu Emperor declared the eighty-year-old <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscan" title="Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBYk">Franciscan</a> missions established under the Yuan dynasty heterodox and illegal.<sup about="#mwt665" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeslie199815_162-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTELeslie199815"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie199815-162"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Leslie"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"15"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie199815-162" id="mwBYo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBYs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBYw">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBY0">]</span></span></a></sup> The centuries-old <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China" id="mwBY4">Church of the East in China</a> also disappeared. During the later Ming, a new wave of Christian missionaries arrived—particularly <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" title="Jesuit China missions" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBY8">Jesuits</a>—who employed new western science and technology in their arguments for conversion. They were educated in Chinese language and culture at <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Paul's_College,_Macau" title="St. Paul's College, Macau" id="mwBZA">St. Paul's College, Macau</a> after its founding in 1579. The most influential was Matteo Ricci, whose "<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunyu_Wanguo_Quantu" title="Kunyu Wanguo Quantu" id="mwBZE">Map of the Myriad Countries of the World</a>" upended <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_geography" title="Chinese geography" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBZI">traditional geography</a> throughout East Asia, and whose work with the convert <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi" id="mwBZM">Xu Guangqi</a> led to the first Chinese translation of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid" id="mwBZQ">Euclid</a>'s <i id="mwBZU"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid's_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements" id="mwBZY">Elements</a></i> in 1607. The discovery of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi'an_Stele" title="Xi'an Stele" id="mwBZc">Xi'an Stele</a> in 1625 also facilitated the treatment of Christianity as a long-established faith in China rather than as a new and dangerous cult. Strong disagreements arose over the extent to which converts could continue to perform rituals honoring the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_cult#Imperial_China" title="Imperial cult" id="mwBZg">emperor</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_temple#Worship" title="Confucian temple" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBZk">Confucius</a>, or their ancestors. Matteo Ricci had adopted a highly accommodating approach, and attempts by his successors to retreat from this policy led to the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_incident_of_1616" title="Nanjing incident of 1616" id="mwBZo">Nanjing incident of 1616</a>, which resulted in the exile of four Jesuits to Macau and the exclusion of the remaining missionaries from public life for six years.<sup about="#mwt668" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32_163-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWong196330–32"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32-163"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wong"},"2":{"wt":"1963"},"pp":{"wt":"30–32"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32-163" id="mwBZs"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBZw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBZ0">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBZ4">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBZ8">During his mission, Ricci was also contacted in Beijing by one of the approximately 5,000 <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews" id="mwBaA">Kaifeng Jews</a> and introduced them and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China" id="mwBaE">their long history in China</a> to Europe.<sup about="#mwt671" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38_164-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38-164"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"White"},"2":{"wt":"1966"},"pp":{"wt":"31–38"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38-164" id="mwBaI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBaM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBaQ">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBaU">]</span></span></a></sup> The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1642_Kaifeng_flood" title="1642 Kaifeng flood" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBaY">1642 flood</a> caused by Kaifeng's Ming governor devastated the community, which lost five of its twelve families, its synagogue, and most of its Torah.<sup about="#mwt675" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-165" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-165"}}'><a href="#cite_note-165" id="mwBac"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBag"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBak">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBao">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="32" id="mwBas" aria-labelledby="Philosophy"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3></div>
|
||
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="33" id="mwBaw" aria-labelledby="Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism"><span id="Wang_Yangming.27s_Confucianism" typeof="mw:FallbackId"></span>Wang Yangming's Confucianism</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBa0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:王守仁.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBa4"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:王守仁.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg/250px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="836" data-file-type="bitmap" height="240" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg/500px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBa8"/></a><figcaption id="mwBbA">Portrait of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming" id="mwBbE">Wang Yangming</a> (1472–1529), considered the most influential Confucian thinker since <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi" id="mwBbI">Zhu Xi</a></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBbM">During the Ming dynasty, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Confucian" title="Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBbQ">Neo-Confucian</a> doctrines of the Song scholar Zhu Xi were embraced by the court and the Chinese literati at large, although the direct line of his school was destroyed by the Yongle Emperor's <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_of_the_ten_degrees_of_kinship" title="Extermination of the ten degrees of kinship" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBbU">extermination of the ten degrees of kinship</a> of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fang_Xiaoru" title="Fang Xiaoru" id="mwBbY">Fang Xiaoru</a> in 1402. The Ming scholar most influential upon subsequent generations, however, was Wang Yangming, whose teachings were attacked in his own time for their similarity to <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism" id="mwBbc">Chan Buddhism</a>.<sup about="#mwt676" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282_166-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"282"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166" id="mwBbg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBbk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBbo">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBbs">]</span></span></a></sup> Building upon Zhu Xi's concept of the "extension of knowledge" (<span title="Chinese-language text" about="#mwt679" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBbw" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"lang","href":"./Template:Lang"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"zh"},"2":{"wt":"理學"}},"i":0}}]}'><span lang="zh">理學</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" about="#mwt679" id="mwBb0"/> or <span title="Chinese-language text" about="#mwt680" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBb4" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"lang","href":"./Template:Lang"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"zh"},"2":{"wt":"格物致知"}},"i":0}}]}'><span lang="zh">格物致知</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" about="#mwt680" id="mwBb8"/>), gaining understanding through careful and rational investigation of things and events, Wang argued that universal concepts would appear in the minds of anyone.<sup about="#mwt681" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281_167-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281-167"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"281"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281-167" id="mwBcA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBcE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBcI">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBcM">]</span></span></a></sup> Therefore, he claimed that anyone—no matter their pedigree or education—could become as wise as <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius" id="mwBcQ">Confucius</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius" id="mwBcU">Mencius</a> had been and that their writings were not sources of truth but merely guides that might have flaws when carefully examined.<sup about="#mwt684" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282_168-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-168"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"pp":{"wt":"281–282"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-168" id="mwBcY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBcc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBcg">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBck">]</span></span></a></sup> A peasant with a great deal of experience and intelligence would then be wiser than an official who had memorized the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Classics" title="Five Classics" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBco">Classics</a> but not experienced the real world.<sup about="#mwt687" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282_168-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-168"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"pp":{"wt":"281–282"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-168" id="mwBcs"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBcw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBc0">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBc4">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="34" id="mwBc8" aria-labelledby="Conservative_reaction"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conservative_reaction">Conservative reaction</h4></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBdA"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBdE"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg/250px-Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="469" data-file-type="bitmap" height="222" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBdI"/></a><figcaption id="mwBdM">A Ming dynasty print drawing of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius" id="mwBdQ">Confucius</a> on his way to the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty" id="mwBdU">Zhou dynasty</a> capital of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang" id="mwBdY">Luoyang</a></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBdc">Other <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrat" title="Scholar-bureaucrat" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBdg">scholar-bureaucrats</a> were wary of Wang's heterodoxy, the increasing number of his disciples while he was still in office, and his overall socially rebellious message. To curb his influence, he was often sent out to deal with military affairs and rebellions far away from the capital. Yet his ideas penetrated mainstream Chinese thought and spurred new interest in Taoism and Buddhism.<sup about="#mwt690" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282_166-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"282"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166" id="mwBdk"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBdo"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBds">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBdw">]</span></span></a></sup> Furthermore, people began to question the validity of the social hierarchy and the idea that the scholar should be above the farmer. Wang Yangming's disciple and salt-mine worker Wang Gen gave lectures to commoners about pursuing education to improve their lives, while his follower <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He_Xinyin" title="He Xinyin" id="mwBd0">He Xinyin</a> challenged the elevation and emphasis of the family in Chinese society.<sup about="#mwt693" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282_166-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"282"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166" id="mwBd4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBd8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBeA">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBeE">]</span></span></a></sup> His contemporary <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zhi_(philosopher)" title="Li Zhi (philosopher)" id="mwBeI">Li Zhi</a> even taught that women were the intellectual equals of men and should be given a better education; both Li and He eventually died in prison, jailed on charges of spreading "dangerous ideas".<sup about="#mwt696" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283_169-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283-169"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"3":{"wt":"Palais"},"4":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"283"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283-169" id="mwBeM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBeQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBeU">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBeY">]</span></span></a></sup> Yet these "dangerous ideas" of educating women had long been embraced by some mothers<sup about="#mwt699" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158_170-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-170"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"158"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-170" id="mwBec"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBeg"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBek">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBeo">]</span></span></a></sup> and by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtesan" title="Courtesan" id="mwBes">courtesans</a> who were as literate and skillful in calligraphy, painting, and poetry as their male guests.<sup about="#mwt702" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230_171-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998230"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230-171"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"230"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230-171" id="mwBew"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBe0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBe4">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBe8">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBfA">The liberal views of Wang Yangming were opposed by the Censorate and by the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donglin_Academy" title="Donglin Academy" id="mwBfE">Donglin Academy</a>, re-established in 1604. These conservatives wanted a revival of orthodox Confucian ethics. Conservatives such as Gu Xiancheng (1550–1612) argued against Wang's idea of innate moral knowledge, stating that this was simply a legitimization for unscrupulous behavior such as greedy pursuits and personal gain. These two strands of Confucian thought, hardened by Chinese scholars' notions of obligation towards their mentors, developed into pervasive factionalism among the ministers of state, who used any opportunity to impeach members of the other faction from court.<sup about="#mwt705" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213_172-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213-172"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"213"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213-172" id="mwBfI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBfM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBfQ">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBfU">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section><section data-mw-section-id="35" id="mwBfY" aria-labelledby="Urban_and_rural_life"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_and_rural_life">Urban and rural life</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt708" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBfc" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Wide image","href":"./Template:Wide_image"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"南都繁會圖 01.jpg"},"2":{"wt":"1500px"},"3":{"wt":"''The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing''—handscroll by [[Qiu Ying]], depicting the urban life of Nanjing"},"dir":{"wt":"rtl"}},"i":0}}]}'><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1330227556" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt709" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Wide image/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .wide-image-normbg,.mw-parser-output .thumbimage.wide-image-normbg{background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .wide-image-nobg,.mw-parser-output .thumbimage.wide-image-nobg{background:transparent;color:inherit}</style></span><div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1510px" about="#mwt708" id="mwBfg"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize thumbimage" style="overflow:auto;direction:rtl"><span typeof="mw:File" data-mw='{"caption":"<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\" id=\"mwBfk\"></span><i id=\"mwBfo\">The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing</i>—handscroll by <a rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" href=\"./Qiu_Ying\" title=\"Qiu Ying\" id=\"mwBfs\">Qiu Ying</a>, depicting the urban life of Nanjing<span typeof=\"mw:Entity\" id=\"mwBfw\"></span>"}'><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:南都繁會圖_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing—handscroll by Qiu Ying, depicting the urban life of Nanjing"><img alt="" resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:南都繁會圖_01.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg/1920px-%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="15836" data-file-height="2000" data-file-type="bitmap" height="189" width="1500" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg/3840px-%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element"/></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:南都繁會圖_01.jpg" title="File:南都繁會圖 01.jpg"> </a></div><i>The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing</i>—handscroll by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying">Qiu Ying</a>, depicting the urban life of Nanjing</div></div></div>
|
||
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt710" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBf0" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"multiple image\n","href":"./Template:Multiple_image"},"params":{"align":{"wt":"center"},"total_height":{"wt":"400px"},"mode":{"wt":"nolines"},"image_style":{"wt":"border:none;"},"footer":{"wt":"\"Suzhou Imitation\" of [[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]] (蘇州片清明上河圖), depicting urban life of the Ming dynasty."},"image1":{"wt":"Along the River During the Qingming Festival (Suzhou Imitation) 13.jpg"},"image2":{"wt":"Along the River During the Qingming Festival (Suzhou Imitation) 12.jpg"},"image3":{"wt":"Along the River During the Qingming Festival (Suzhou Imitation) 11.jpg"},"image4":{"wt":"Along the River During the Qingming Festival (Suzhou Imitation) 10.jpg"}},"i":0}}]}'><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1349637415/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt711" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Multiple image/styles.css","wrapper":".tmulti"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'>.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner .thumbimage{background-color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner .thumbimage:not([style*="background-color"]) span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img,html.skin-theme-clientpref-day .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner .thumbimage:not([style*="background-color"]) span:not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner .thumbimage:not([style*="background-color"]) span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style></span><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center" about="#mwt710"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:816px;max-width:816px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_13.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg/250px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" data-file-type="bitmap" height="135" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg/500px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element"/></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_12.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg/250px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" data-file-type="bitmap" height="135" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg/500px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element"/></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_11.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg/250px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" data-file-type="bitmap" height="135" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg/500px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element"/></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_10.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg/250px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" data-file-type="bitmap" height="135" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg/500px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element"/></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">"Suzhou Imitation" of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival" title="Along the River During the Qingming Festival">Along the River During the Qingming Festival</a> (蘇州片清明上河圖), depicting urban life of the Ming dynasty.</div></div></div></div><span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt710"><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_unknown_parameters#total_height%20"/><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_unknown_parameters#mode%20"/></span>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBf4"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_Paste_Box_(Yinnihe)_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_(1_of_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBf8"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_Paste_Box_(Yinnihe)_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_(1_of_2).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg/250px-Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1940" data-file-type="bitmap" height="185" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg/500px-Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBgA"/></a><figcaption id="mwBgE">A Ming dynasty red "seal paste box" in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carved_lacquer" title="Carved lacquer" id="mwBgI">carved lacquer</a></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBgM">Wang Gen was able to give philosophical lectures to many commoners from different regions because—following the trend already apparent in the Song dynasty—communities in Ming society were becoming less isolated as the distance between market towns was shrinking. Schools, descent groups, religious associations, and other local voluntary organizations were increasing in number and allowing more contact between educated men and local villagers.<sup about="#mwt712" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206_173-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206-173"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"206"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206-173" id="mwBgQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBgU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBgY">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBgc">]</span></span></a></sup> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" title="Jonathan Spence" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBgg">Jonathan Spence</a> writes that the distinction between what was town and country was blurred, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city. Not only was the blurring of town and country evident, but also of socioeconomic class in the traditional <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations" id="mwBgk">four occupations</a>, since artisans sometimes worked on farms in peak periods, and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth.<sup about="#mwt715" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199913_174-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199913"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"13"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174" id="mwBgo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBgs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBgw">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBg0">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBg4">A variety of occupations could be chosen or inherited from a father's line of work. These included coffin makers, ironworkers and blacksmiths, tailors, cooks and noodle-makers, retail merchants, tavern, teahouse, or winehouse managers, shoemakers, seal cutters, pawnshop owners, brothel heads, and merchant bankers engaging in a proto-banking system involving notes of exchange.<sup about="#mwt718" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199920_79-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199920"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-79"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"20"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-79" id="mwBg8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBhA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBhE">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBhI">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt721" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13_175-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199912–13"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-175"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"12–13"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-175" id="mwBhM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBhQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBhU">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBhY">]</span></span></a></sup> Virtually every town had a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel" id="mwBhc">brothel</a> where female and male prostitutes could be had.<sup about="#mwt724" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232_176-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998229, 232"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232-176"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"229, 232"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232-176" id="mwBhg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBhk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBho">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBhs">]</span></span></a></sup> Male catamites fetched a higher price than female concubines since <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pederasty" title="Pederasty" id="mwBhw">pederasty</a> with a teenage boy was seen as a mark of elite status, regardless of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy" id="mwBh0">sodomy</a> being repugnant to sexual norms.<sup about="#mwt727" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223_177-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223-177"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"232–223"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223-177" id="mwBh4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBh8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBiA">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBiE">]</span></span></a></sup> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_bathing" title="Public bathing" id="mwBiI">Public bathing</a> became much more common than in earlier periods.<sup about="#mwt730" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer195657_178-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESchafer195657"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer195657-178"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Schafer"},"2":{"wt":"1956"},"p":{"wt":"57"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer195657-178" id="mwBiM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBiQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBiU">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBiY">]</span></span></a></sup> Urban shops and retailers sold a variety of goods such as <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper" id="mwBic">special paper money</a> to burn at ancestral sacrifices, specialized luxury goods, headgear, fine cloth, teas, and others.<sup about="#mwt733" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13_175-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199912–13"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-175"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"pp":{"wt":"12–13"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-175" id="mwBig"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBik"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBio">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBis">]</span></span></a></sup> Smaller communities and townships too poor or scattered to support shops and artisans obtained their goods from periodic market fairs and traveling peddlers. A small township also provided a place for simple schooling, news and gossip, matchmaking, religious festivals, traveling theater groups, tax collection, and bases of famine relief distribution.<sup about="#mwt736" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199913_174-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199913"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"13"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174" id="mwBiw"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBi0"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBi4">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBi8">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBjA"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:邝璠《便民图纂·耕织图·耘田》.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBjE"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:邝璠《便民图纂·耕织图·耘田》.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg/250px-%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1689" data-file-type="bitmap" height="313" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg/500px-%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBjI"/></a><figcaption id="mwBjM">Weeding out the field, illustrated on Fan Kuang's <i id="mwBjQ">Bianmintuzuan</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text" about="#mwt739" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBjU" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"lang","href":"./Template:Lang"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"zh"},"2":{"wt":"便民图纂"}},"i":0}}]}'><span lang="zh">便民图纂</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" about="#mwt739" id="mwBjY"/>)</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBjc">Farming villagers in the north spent their days harvesting crops like wheat and millet, while farmers south of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River" id="mwBjg">Huai River</a> engaged in intensive rice cultivation and had lakes and ponds where ducks and fish could be raised. The cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and tea bushes could be found mostly south of the Yangtze; even further south <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane" id="mwBjk">sugarcane</a> and citrus were grown as basic crops.<sup about="#mwt740" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199913_174-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199913"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"13"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174" id="mwBjo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBjs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBjw">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBj0">]</span></span></a></sup> Some people in the mountainous southwest made a living by selling lumber from hard bamboo. Besides cutting down trees to sell wood, the poor also made a living by turning wood into charcoal, and by burning oyster shells to make <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_lime" title="Agricultural lime" id="mwBj4">lime</a> and fired pots, and weaving mats and baskets.<sup about="#mwt743" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199895_179-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199895"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"95"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179" id="mwBj8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBkA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBkE">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBkI">]</span></span></a></sup> In the north traveling by horse and carriage was most common, while in the south the myriad of rivers, canals, and lakes provided cheap and easy water transport. Although the south had the characteristic of the wealthy landlord and tenant farmers, there were on average many more owner-cultivators north of the Huai River due to harsher climate, living not far above subsistence level.<sup about="#mwt746" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199914_180-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESpence199914"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199914-180"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Spence"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"14"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199914-180" id="mwBkM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBkQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBkU">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBkY">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBkc">Early Ming dynasty saw the strictest <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumptuary_laws" title="Sumptuary laws" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBkg">sumptuary laws</a> in Chinese history. It was illegal for commoners to wear fine silk or dress in bright red, dark green or yellow colors; nor could they wear boots or <i id="mwBkk"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_clothing#Hats,_headwear_and_hairstyles" title="Ancient Chinese clothing" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBko">guan</a></i> hats. Women could not use ornaments made from gold, jade, pearl or emerald. Merchants and their families were further banned from using silk. However, these laws were no longer enforced from the mid-Ming period onwards.<sup about="#mwt749" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40_181-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40-181"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Zhou"},"2":{"wt":"1990"},"p":{"wt":"34–40"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40-181" id="mwBks"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBkw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBk0">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBk4">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBk8">Male homosexual marriages were institutionalized in several areas, such as Fujian.<sup about="#mwt752" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134_182-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134-182"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hinsch"},"2":{"wt":"1990"},"p":{"wt":"134"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134-182" id="mwBlA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBlE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBlI">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBlM">]</span></span></a></sup> Homosexuality was practiced frequently by monks, and spread to Japan with Kukai, a Japanese monk who trained in China.<sup about="#mwt755" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137_183-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137-183"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hinsch"},"2":{"wt":"1990"},"p":{"wt":"137"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137-183" id="mwBlQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBlU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBlY">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBlc">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section></section><section data-mw-section-id="36" id="mwBlg" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt758" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBlk" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Further","href":"./Template:Further"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Architecture of the Ming dynasty"},"2":{"wt":"History of science and technology in China"},"3":{"wt":"List of Chinese inventions"},"4":{"wt":"List of Chinese discoveries"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1353705441" about="#mwt759" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Hatnote/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/></span><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" about="#mwt758" id="mwBlo">Further information: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Architecture of the Ming dynasty">Architecture of the Ming dynasty</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">List of Chinese inventions</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">List of Chinese discoveries</a></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBls"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBlw"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/250px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="625" data-file-type="bitmap" height="197" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/500px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwBl0"/></a><figcaption id="mwBl4">The puddling process of smelting iron <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore" title="Ore" id="mwBl8">ore</a> to make <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron" id="mwBmA">pig iron</a> and then <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron" id="mwBmE">wrought iron</a>, with the right illustration displaying men working a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace" id="mwBmI">blast furnace</a>, from the <i id="mwBmM"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiangong_Kaiwu" title="Tiangong Kaiwu" id="mwBmQ">Tiangong Kaiwu</a></i> encyclopedia, 1637</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBmU"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBmY"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif/250px-Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif" decoding="async" data-file-width="1454" data-file-height="1036" data-file-type="bitmap" height="178" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif/500px-Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwBmc"/></a><figcaption id="mwBmg">Map of the known world by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He" id="mwBmk">Zheng He</a>: India at the top, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceylon" title="Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBmo">Ceylon</a> at the upper right and East Africa along the bottom. Sailing directions and distances are marked using <i id="mwBms">zhenlu</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text" about="#mwt760" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBmw" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"lang","href":"./Template:Lang"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"zh"},"2":{"wt":"針路"}},"i":0}}]}'><span lang="zh">針路</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" about="#mwt760" id="mwBm0"/>) or compass route.</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBm4">After the flourishing of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty" id="mwBm8">science and technology in the Song dynasty</a>, the Ming perhaps saw fewer advancements in science and technology compared to the pace of discovery in the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world" id="mwBnA">Western world</a>. In fact, key advances in Chinese science in the late Ming were spurred by contact with Europe. In 1626 <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell" id="mwBnE">Johann Adam Schall von Bell</a> wrote the first Chinese treatise on the telescope, the <i id="mwBnI">Yuanjingshuo</i> (<i id="mwBnM">Far Seeing Optic Glass</i>); in 1634 the Chongzhen Emperor acquired the telescope of the late <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Schreck" title="Johann Schreck" id="mwBnQ">Johann Schreck</a> (1576–1630).<sup about="#mwt761" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445_184-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445-184"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1959"},"pp":{"wt":"444–445"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445-184" id="mwBnU"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBnY"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBnc">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBng">]</span></span></a></sup> The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentric" title="Heliocentric" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBnk">heliocentric</a> model of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System" id="mwBno">Solar System</a> was rejected by the Catholic missionaries in China, but <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler" id="mwBns">Johannes Kepler</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei" id="mwBnw">Galileo Galilei</a>'s ideas slowly trickled into China starting with the Polish Jesuit <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Boym" title="Michael Boym" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBn0">Michael Boym</a> (1612–1659) in 1627, Adam Schall von Bell's treatise in 1640, and finally <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Edkins" title="Joseph Edkins" id="mwBn4">Joseph Edkins</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Wylie_(missionary)" title="Alexander Wylie (missionary)" id="mwBn8">Alex Wylie</a>, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fryer_Thomas_Keane" title="John Fryer Thomas Keane" id="mwBoA">John Fryer</a> in the 19th century.<sup about="#mwt764" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447_185-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447-185"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1959"},"pp":{"wt":"444–447"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447-185" id="mwBoE"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBoI"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBoM">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBoQ">]</span></span></a></sup> Catholic Jesuits in China would promote <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus" id="mwBoU">Copernican</a> theory at court, yet at the same time embrace the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy" id="mwBoY">Ptolemaic</a> system in their writing; it was not until 1865 that Catholic missionaries in China sponsored the heliocentric model as their Protestant peers did.<sup about="#mwt767" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1_186-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEWong1963p. 31, footnote 1"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1-186"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Wong"},"2":{"wt":"1963"},"loc":{"wt":"p. 31, footnote 1"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1-186" id="mwBoc"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBog"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBok">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBoo">]</span></span></a></sup> Although <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo" id="mwBos">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guo_Shoujing" title="Guo Shoujing" id="mwBow">Guo Shoujing</a> (1231–1316) had laid the basis for <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry" id="mwBo0">trigonometry</a> in China, another important work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607 with the efforts of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci.<sup about="#mwt770" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110_187-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1959110"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110-187"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1959"},"p":{"wt":"110"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110-187" id="mwBo4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBo8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBpA">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBpE">]</span></span></a></sup> Some inventions which had their origins in ancient China were reintroduced to China from Europe during the late Ming; for example, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_mill_(carriage)" title="Field mill (carriage)" id="mwBpI">field mill</a>.<sup about="#mwt773" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257_188-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257-188"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"pp":{"wt":"255–257"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257-188" id="mwBpM"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBpQ"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBpU">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBpY">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBpc">By the 16th century the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar" id="mwBpg">Chinese calendar</a> was in need of reform. Although the Ming had adopted Guo Shoujing's <i id="mwBpk">Shoushi</i> calendar of 1281, which was just as accurate as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar" id="mwBpo">Gregorian calendar</a>, the Ming Directorate of Astronomy failed to periodically readjust it; this was perhaps due to their lack of expertise since their offices had become hereditary in the Ming and the Statutes of the Ming prohibited private involvement in astronomy.<sup about="#mwt776" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647_189-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEPeterson198647"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647-189"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Peterson"},"2":{"wt":"1986"},"p":{"wt":"47"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647-189" id="mwBps"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBpw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBp0">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBp4">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt779" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Engelfriet"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"78"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190" id="mwBp8"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBqA"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBqE">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBqI">]</span></span></a></sup> A sixth-generation descendant of the Hongxi Emperor, the "Prince" <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Zaiyu" title="Zhu Zaiyu" id="mwBqM">Zhu Zaiyu</a> (1536–1611), submitted a proposal to fix the calendar in 1595, but the ultra-conservative astronomical commission rejected it.<sup about="#mwt782" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166_191-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166-191"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Kuttner"},"2":{"wt":"1975"},"p":{"wt":"166"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166-191" id="mwBqQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBqU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBqY">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBqc">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt785" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Engelfriet"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"78"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190" id="mwBqg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBqk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBqo">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBqs">]</span></span></a></sup> This was the same Zhu Zaiyu who discovered the system of tuning known as <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_temperament" title="Equal temperament" id="mwBqw">equal temperament</a>, a discovery made simultaneously by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin" id="mwBq0">Simon Stevin</a> (1548–1620) in Europe.<sup about="#mwt788" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167_192-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167-192"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Kuttner"},"2":{"wt":"1975"},"pp":{"wt":"166–167"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167-192" id="mwBq4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBq8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBrA">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBrE">]</span></span></a></sup> In addition to publishing his works on music, he was able to publish his findings on the calendar in 1597.<sup about="#mwt791" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Engelfriet"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"78"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190" id="mwBrI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBrM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBrQ">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBrU">]</span></span></a></sup> A year earlier, the memorial of Xing Yunlu suggesting a calendar improvement was rejected by the Supervisor of the Astronomical Bureau due to the law banning private practice of astronomy; Xing would later serve with Xu Guangqi to reform the calendar according to Western standards in 1629.<sup about="#mwt794" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-3" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Engelfriet"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"78"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190" id="mwBrY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBrc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBrg">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBrk">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBro"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBrs"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ming-marine-compass.jpg/250px-Ming-marine-compass.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="491" data-file-type="bitmap" height="269" width="250" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Ming-marine-compass.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element" id="mwBrw"/></a><figcaption id="mwBr0">A 24-point compass chart employed by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He" id="mwBr4">Zheng He</a> during his explorations</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBr8">When the Ming founder Hongwu Emperor came upon the mechanical devices housed in the Yuan palace at Khanbaliq—such as fountains with balls dancing on their jets, tiger <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata" title="Automata" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBsA">automata</a>, dragon-headed devices that spouted mists of perfume, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striking_clock" title="Striking clock" id="mwBsE">mechanical clocks</a> in the tradition of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_Xing" title="Yi Xing" id="mwBsI">Yi Xing</a> (683–727) and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song" id="mwBsM">Su Song</a> (1020–1101)—he associated all of them with the decadence of Mongol rule and had them destroyed.<sup about="#mwt797" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508_193-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965133, 508"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-193"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"pp":{"wt":"133, 508"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-193" id="mwBsQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBsU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBsY">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBsc">]</span></span></a></sup> This was described in full length by the Divisional Director of the Ministry of Works, Xiao Xun, who also carefully preserved details on the architecture and layout of the Yuan dynasty palace.<sup about="#mwt800" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508_193-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965133, 508"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-193"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"pp":{"wt":"133, 508"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-193" id="mwBsg"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBsk"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBso">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBss">]</span></span></a></sup> Later, European Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Trigault" title="Nicolas Trigault" id="mwBsw">Nicolas Trigault</a> would briefly mention indigenous Chinese clockworks that featured drive wheels.<sup about="#mwt803" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438_194-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965438"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438-194"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"p":{"wt":"438"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438-194" id="mwBs0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBs4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBs8">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBtA">]</span></span></a></sup> However, both Ricci and Trigault were quick to point out that 16th-century European clockworks were far more advanced than the common time keeping devices in China, which they listed as <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock" id="mwBtE">water clocks</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incense_clock" title="Incense clock" id="mwBtI">incense clocks</a>, and "other instruments<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwBtM"> </span>... with wheels rotated by sand as if by water" (Chinese: <span title="Chinese-language text" about="#mwt806" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwBtQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"lang","href":"./Template:Lang"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"zh"},"2":{"wt":"沙漏"}},"i":0}}]}'><span lang="zh">沙漏</span></span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" about="#mwt806" id="mwBtU"/>).<sup about="#mwt807" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509_195-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965509"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509-195"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"p":{"wt":"509"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509-195" id="mwBtY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBtc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBtg">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBtk">]</span></span></a></sup> Chinese records—namely the <i id="mwBto"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan" id="mwBts">Yuan Shi</a></i>—describe the 'five-wheeled sand clock', a mechanism pioneered by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhan_Xiyuan" title="Zhan Xiyuan" id="mwBtw">Zhan Xiyuan</a> (<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl." title="Fl." class="mw-redirect" id="mwBt0">fl.</a> 1360–1380) which featured the scoop wheel of Su Song's earlier <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock" id="mwBt4">astronomical clock</a> and a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial_(measurement)" title="Dial (measurement)" id="mwBt8">stationary dial face</a> over which a pointer circulated, similar to European models of the time.<sup about="#mwt810" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511_196-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965511"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511-196"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"p":{"wt":"511"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511-196" id="mwBuA"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBuE"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBuI">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBuM">]</span></span></a></sup> This sand-driven wheel clock was improved upon by Zhou Shuxue (fl. 1530–1558) who added a fourth large gear wheel, changed gear ratios, and widened the orifice for collecting sand grains since he criticized the earlier model for clogging up too often.<sup about="#mwt813" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511_197-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511-197"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"pp":{"wt":"510–511"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511-197" id="mwBuQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBuU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBuY">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBuc">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBug"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ricciportrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwBuk"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ricciportrait.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ricciportrait.jpg/250px-Ricciportrait.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="974" data-file-type="bitmap" height="263" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ricciportrait.jpg/500px-Ricciportrait.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBuo"/></a><figcaption id="mwBus">Portrait of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci" id="mwBuw">Matteo Ricci</a> by Yu Wenhui, Latinized as Emmanuel Pereira, dated the year of Ricci's death, 1610</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwBu0">The Chinese were intrigued with European technology, but so were visiting Europeans of Chinese technology. In 1584, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius" id="mwBu4">Abraham Ortelius</a> (1527–1598) featured in his atlas <i id="mwBu8">Theatrum Orbis Terrarum</i> the peculiar Chinese innovation of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelbarrow#Chinese_sailing_carriage" title="Wheelbarrow" id="mwBvA">mounting masts and sails onto carriages</a>, just like <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_(ship)" title="Junk (ship)" id="mwBvE">Chinese ships</a>.<sup about="#mwt816" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276_198-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965276"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276-198"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"p":{"wt":"276"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276-198" id="mwBvI"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBvM"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBvQ">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBvU">]</span></span></a></sup> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_González_de_Mendoza" title="Juan González de Mendoza" id="mwBvY">Gonzales de Mendoza</a> also mentioned this a year later—noting even the designs of them on Chinese silken robes—while <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator" id="mwBvc">Gerardus Mercator</a> (1512–1594) featured them in his atlas, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton" id="mwBvg">John Milton</a> (1608–1674) in one of his famous poems, and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Everardus_van_Braam_Houckgeest" title="Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest" id="mwBvk">Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest</a> (1739–1801) in the writings of his travel diary in China.<sup about="#mwt819" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276_199-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276-199"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1965"},"pp":{"wt":"274–276"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276-199" id="mwBvo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBvs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBvw">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBv0">]</span></span></a></sup>
|
||
The encyclopedist <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Yingxing" title="Song Yingxing" id="mwBv4">Song Yingxing</a> (1587–1666) documented a wide array of technologies, metallurgic and industrial processes in his <i id="mwBv8"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiangong_Kaiwu" title="Tiangong Kaiwu" id="mwBwA">Tiangong Kaiwu</a></i> encyclopedia of 1637. This includes mechanical and hydraulic powered devices for agriculture and irrigation,<sup about="#mwt822" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103_200-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESong19667–30, 84–103"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103-200"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Song"},"2":{"wt":"1966"},"pp":{"wt":"7–30, 84–103"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103-200" id="mwBwE"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBwI"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBwM">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBwQ">]</span></span></a></sup> nautical technology such as vessel types and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling" id="mwBwU">snorkeling</a> gear for pearl divers,<sup about="#mwt825" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196_201-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESong1966171–72, 189, 196"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196-201"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Song"},"2":{"wt":"1966"},"pp":{"wt":"171–72, 189, 196"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196-201" id="mwBwY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBwc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBwg">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBwk">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt828" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668_202-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1971668"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668-202"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1971"},"p":{"wt":"668"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668-202" id="mwBwo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBws"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBww">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBw0">]</span></span></a></sup><sup about="#mwt831" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69_203-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1971634, 649–50, 668–69"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69-203"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1971"},"pp":{"wt":"634, 649–50, 668–69"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69-203" id="mwBw4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBw8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBxA">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBxE">]</span></span></a></sup> the annual processes of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sericulture" title="Sericulture" id="mwBxI">sericulture</a> and weaving with the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom" title="Loom" id="mwBxM">loom</a>,<sup about="#mwt834" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong196636–36_204-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESong196636–36"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong196636–36-204"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Song"},"2":{"wt":"1966"},"pp":{"wt":"36–36"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong196636–36-204" id="mwBxQ"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBxU"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBxY">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBxc">]</span></span></a></sup> metallurgic processes such as the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible" id="mwBxg">crucible</a> technique and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quench" title="Quench" class="mw-redirect" id="mwBxk">quenching</a>,<sup about="#mwt837" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190_205-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTESong1966237, 190"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190-205"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Song"},"2":{"wt":"1966"},"pp":{"wt":"237, 190"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190-205" id="mwBxo"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBxs"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBxw">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBx0">]</span></span></a></sup> manufacturing processes such as for roasting iron <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite" id="mwBx4">pyrite</a> in converting sulphide to oxide in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur" id="mwBx8">sulfur</a> used in gunpowder compositions—illustrating how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still-head that sent over sulfur as vapor that would solidify and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallize" title="Crystallize" class="mw-redirect" id="mwByA">crystallize</a><sup about="#mwt840" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126_206-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987126"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126-206"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"p":{"wt":"126"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126-206" id="mwByE"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwByI"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwByM">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwByQ">]</span></span></a></sup>—and the use of gunpowder weapons such as a <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine" id="mwByU">naval mine</a> ignited by use of a rip-cord and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheellock" title="Wheellock" id="mwByY">steel flint wheel</a>.<sup about="#mwt843" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff_207-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987205, 339ff"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff-207"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"pp":{"wt":"205, 339ff"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff-207" id="mwByc"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwByg"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwByk">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwByo">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwBys"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwByw"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg/250px-Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="818" data-file-type="bitmap" height="256" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg/500px-Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwBy0"/></a><figcaption id="mwBy4">A cannon from the <i id="mwBy8"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huolongjing" title="Huolongjing" id="mwBzA">Huolongjing</a></i>, compiled by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu" id="mwBzE">Jiao Yu</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen" id="mwBzI">Liu Bowen</a> before the latter's death in 1375</figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBzM">Focusing on agriculture in his <i id="mwBzQ">Nongzheng Quanshu</i>, the agronomist <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi" id="mwBzU">Xu Guangqi</a> (1562–1633) took an interest in irrigation, fertilizers, famine relief, economic and textile crops, and empirical observation of the elements that gave insight into early understandings of chemistry.<sup about="#mwt846" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66_208-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66-208"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1984"},"pp":{"wt":"65–66"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66-208" id="mwBzY"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBzc"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBzg">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBzk">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwBzo">There were many advances and new designs in gunpowder weapons during the beginning of the dynasty, but by the mid to late Ming the Chinese began to frequently employ European-style artillery and firearms.<sup about="#mwt849" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372_209-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987372"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372-209"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"p":{"wt":"372"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372-209" id="mwBzs"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwBzw"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBz0">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwBz4">]</span></span></a></sup> The <i id="mwBz8"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huolongjing" title="Huolongjing" id="mwB0A">Huolongjing</a></i>, compiled by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu" id="mwB0E">Jiao Yu</a> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen" id="mwB0I">Liu Bowen</a> sometime before the latter's death on 16 May 1375 (with a preface added by Jiao in 1412),<sup about="#mwt852" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25_210-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25-210"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"pp":{"wt":"24–25"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25-210" id="mwB0M"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB0Q"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB0U">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB0Y">]</span></span></a></sup> featured many types of cutting-edge gunpowder weaponry for the time. This includes hollow, gunpowder-filled <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_shot" title="Round shot" id="mwB0c">exploding cannonballs</a>,<sup about="#mwt855" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264_211-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987264"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264-211"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"p":{"wt":"264"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264-211" id="mwB0g"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB0k"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB0o">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB0s">]</span></span></a></sup> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine" id="mwB0w">land mines</a> that used a complex trigger mechanism of falling weights, pins, and a steel wheellock to ignite the train of fuses,<sup about="#mwt858" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205_212-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205-212"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"pp":{"wt":"203–205"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205-212" id="mwB00"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB04"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB08">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB1A">]</span></span></a></sup> naval mines,<sup about="#mwt861" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205_213-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987205"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205-213"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"p":{"wt":"205"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205-213" id="mwB1E"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB1I"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB1M">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB1Q">]</span></span></a></sup> fin-mounted winged rockets for <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamic" title="Aerodynamic" class="mw-redirect" id="mwB1U">aerodynamic</a> control,<sup about="#mwt864" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502_214-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502-214"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"pp":{"wt":"498–502"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502-214" id="mwB1Y"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB1c"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB1g">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB1k">]</span></span></a></sup> <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistage_rocket" title="Multistage rocket" id="mwB1o">multistage rockets</a> propelled by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_rocket" title="Booster rocket" class="mw-redirect" id="mwB1s">booster rockets</a> before igniting a swarm of smaller rockets issuing forth from the end of the missile (shaped like a dragon's head),<sup about="#mwt867" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508_215-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987508"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508-215"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"p":{"wt":"508"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508-215" id="mwB1w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB10"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB14">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB18">]</span></span></a></sup> and <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_cannon" title="Hand cannon" id="mwB2A">hand cannons</a> that had up to |ten barrels.<sup about="#mwt870" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229_216-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTENeedham1987229"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229-216"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Needham"},"2":{"wt":"1987"},"p":{"wt":"229"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229-216" id="mwB2E"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB2I"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB2M">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB2Q">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwB2U"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Shizhen" title="Li Shizhen" id="mwB2Y">Li Shizhen</a> (1518–1593)—one of the most renowned <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacologists" title="Pharmacologists" class="mw-redirect" id="mwB2c">pharmacologists</a> and physicians <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine" id="mwB2g">in Chinese history</a>—belonged to the late Ming period. His <i id="mwB2k"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencao_Gangmu" title="Bencao Gangmu" id="mwB2o">Bencao Gangmu</a></i> is a medical text with 1,892 entries, each entry with its own name called a <i id="mwB2s">gang</i>. The <i id="mwB2w">mu</i> in the title refers to the synonyms of each name.<sup about="#mwt877" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-217" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-217"}}'><a href="#cite_note-217" id="mwB20"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB24"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB28">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB3A">]</span></span></a></sup> Inoculation, although it can be traced to earlier Chinese folk medicine, was detailed in Chinese texts by the sixteenth century. Throughout the Ming, around fifty texts were published on the treatment of smallpox.<sup about="#mwt879" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-218" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-218"}}'><a href="#cite_note-218" id="mwB3E"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB3I"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB3M">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB3Q">]</span></span></a></sup> In regards to oral hygiene, the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt" id="mwB3U">ancient Egyptians</a> had a primitive toothbrush of a twig frayed at the end, but the Chinese were the first to invent the modern bristle toothbrush in 1498, although it used stiff pig hair.<sup about="#mwt873" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)_219-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEThe Library of Congress (2007)"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)-219"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"The Library of Congress (2007)"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)-219" id="mwB3Y"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB3c"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB3g">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB3k">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="37" id="mwB3o" aria-labelledby="Population"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population">Population</h2></div>
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwB3s"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_assis_de_l'empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwB3w"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_assis_de_l'empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg/250px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="2356" data-file-height="2968" data-file-type="bitmap" height="252" width="200" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg/500px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg 2x" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwB30"/></a><figcaption id="mwB34">The <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuande_Emperor" title="Xuande Emperor" id="mwB38">Xuande Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt880" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwB4A" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1425"},"2":{"wt":"1435"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt881" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwB4E\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1425–1435</span>); he stated in 1428 that his populace was dwindling due to palace construction and military adventures. But the population was rising under him, a fact noted by Zhou Chen—governor of <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Zhili" title="South Zhili" class="mw-redirect" id="mwB4I">South Zhili</a>—in his 1432 report to the throne about widespread itinerant commerce.<sup about="#mwt882" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_220-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199828"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220" id="mwB4M"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB4Q"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB4U">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB4Y">]</span></span></a></sup></figcaption></figure>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwB4c"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology" id="mwB4g">Sinologist historians</a> debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty. The historian <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Brook" title="Timothy Brook" id="mwB4k">Timothy Brook</a> notes that the Ming government census figures are dubious since fiscal obligations prompted many families to underreport the number of people in their households and many county officials to underreport the number of households in their jurisdiction.<sup about="#mwt885" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199827_221-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199827"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827-221"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"27"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827-221" id="mwB4o"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB4s"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB4w">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB40">]</span></span></a></sup> Children were often underreported, especially female children, as shown by skewed population statistics throughout the Ming.<sup about="#mwt888" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267_222-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998267"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-222"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"267"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-222" id="mwB44"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB48"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB5A">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB5E">]</span></span></a></sup> Even adult women were underreported;<sup about="#mwt891" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99_223-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-223"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"97–99"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-223" id="mwB5I"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB5M"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB5Q">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB5U">]</span></span></a></sup> for example, the Daming Prefecture in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Zhili" title="North Zhili" class="mw-redirect" id="mwB5Y">North Zhili</a> reported a population of 378,167 males and 226,982 females in 1502.<sup about="#mwt894" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897_224-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199897"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-224"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"97"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-224" id="mwB5c"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB5g"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB5k">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB5o">]</span></span></a></sup> The government attempted to revise the census figures using estimates of the expected average number of people in each household, but this did not solve the widespread problem of tax registration.<sup about="#mwt897" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267_225-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199828, 267"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-225"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"28, 267"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-225" id="mwB5s"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB5w"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB50">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB54">]</span></span></a></sup> Some part of the gender imbalance may be attributed to the practice of female <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide" id="mwB58">infanticide</a>. The practice is well documented in China, going back over two thousand years, and it was described as "rampant" and "practiced by almost every family" by contemporary authors.<sup about="#mwt900" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201_226-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201-226"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Kinney"},"2":{"wt":"1995"},"pp":{"wt":"200–201"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201-226" id="mwB6A"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB6E"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB6I">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB6M">]</span></span></a></sup> However, the dramatically skewed sex ratios, which many counties reported exceeding 2:1 by 1586, cannot likely be explained by infanticide alone.<sup about="#mwt903" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99_223-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-223"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"97–99"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-223" id="mwB6Q"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB6U"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB6Y">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB6c">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb" id="mwB6g"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chen_Hongshou,_Appreciating_Plums,_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description" id="mwB6k"><img resource="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chen_Hongshou,_Appreciating_Plums,_detail.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Chen_Hongshou%2C_Appreciating_Plums%2C_detail.jpg" decoding="async" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="343" data-file-type="bitmap" height="293" width="200" class="mw-file-element mw-file-upright" style="--mw-file-upright: 0.8" id="mwB6o"/></a><figcaption id="mwB6s"><i id="mwB6w">Appreciating Plums</i>, by <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Hongshou" title="Chen Hongshou" id="mwB60">Chen Hongshou</a> (1598–1652), showing a woman holding an oval fan while enjoying the beauty of the plum</figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p id="mwB64">The number of people counted in the 1381 census was 59,873,305; however, this number dropped significantly when the government found that some 3<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB68"> </span>million people were missing from the tax census of 1391.<sup about="#mwt906" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28_227-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28-227"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"27–28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28-227" id="mwB7A"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB7E"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB7I">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB7M">]</span></span></a></sup> Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381, the need for survival pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region, where the Hongwu Emperor had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace. The government tried to mitigate this by creating their own conservative estimate of 60,545,812 people in 1393.<sup about="#mwt909" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_220-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199828"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220" id="mwB7Q"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB7U"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB7Y">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB7c">]</span></span></a></sup> In his <i id="mwB7g">Studies on the Population of China</i>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping-ti_Ho" title="Ping-ti Ho" id="mwB7k">Ping-ti Ho</a> suggests revising the 1393 census to 65<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB7o"> </span>million people, noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census.<sup about="#mwt912" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259_6-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEHo19598–9, 22, 259"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-6"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ho"},"2":{"wt":"1959"},"pp":{"wt":"8–9, 22, 259"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-6" id="mwB7s"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB7w"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB70">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB74">]</span></span></a></sup> Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB78"> </span>million, while the population was in fact increasing.<sup about="#mwt915" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_220-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199828"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"28"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220" id="mwB8A"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB8E"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB8I">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB8M">]</span></span></a></sup> Even the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongzhi_Emperor" title="Hongzhi Emperor" id="mwB8Q">Hongzhi Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt918" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwB8U" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1487"},"2":{"wt":"1505"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt919" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwB8Y\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1487–1505</span>) remarked that the daily increase in subjects coincided with the daily dwindling number of registered civilians and soldiers.<sup about="#mwt920" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199895_179-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199895"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"95"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179" id="mwB8c"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB8g"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB8k">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB8o">]</span></span></a></sup> William Atwell estimates the population of China around 1400 at 90<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB8s"> </span>million people, citing Heijdra and Mote.<sup about="#mwt923" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286_228-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEAtwell200286"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286-228"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Atwell"},"2":{"wt":"2002"},"p":{"wt":"86"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286-228" id="mwB8w"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB80"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB84">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB88">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwB9A">Historians are now turning to local <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer" title="Gazetteer" id="mwB9E">gazetteers</a> of Ming China for clues that would show consistent growth in population.<sup about="#mwt926" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267_222-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998267"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-222"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"267"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-222" id="mwB9I"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB9M"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB9Q">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB9U">]</span></span></a></sup> Using the gazetteers, Brook estimates that the overall population under the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenghua_Emperor" title="Chenghua Emperor" id="mwB9Y">Chenghua Emperor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt929" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwB9c" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1464"},"2":{"wt":"1487"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt930" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwB9g\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1464–1487</span>) was roughly 75<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB9k"> </span>million,<sup about="#mwt931" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267_225-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199828, 267"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-225"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"28, 267"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-225" id="mwB9o"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB9s"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB9w">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB90">]</span></span></a></sup> despite mid-Ming census figures hovering around 62<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB94"> </span>million.<sup about="#mwt934" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199895_179-2" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199895"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"95"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179" id="mwB98"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB-A"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB-E">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB-I">]</span></span></a></sup> While prefectures across the empire in the mid-Ming period were reporting either a drop in or stagnant population size, local gazetteers reported massive amounts of incoming vagrant workers with not enough good cultivated land for them to till, so that many would become drifters, con-men, or wood-cutters that contributed to deforestation.<sup about="#mwt937" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96_229-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96-229"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"pp":{"wt":"94–96"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96-229" id="mwB-M"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB-Q"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB-U">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB-Y">]</span></span></a></sup> The Hongzhi and Zhengde emperors lessened the penalties against those who had fled their home region, while the Jiajing Emperor (<span style="white-space:nowrap;" about="#mwt940" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwB-c" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reign","href":"./Template:Reign"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"1521"},"2":{"wt":"1567"}},"i":0}}]}'><abbr title="reigned" about="#mwt941" typeof="mw:ExpandedAttrs" data-mw='{"attribs":[[{"txt":"title"},{"html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Nowiki\" id=\"mwB-g\">reigned</span>"}]]}'>r.</abbr><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>1521–1567</span>) finally had officials register migrants wherever they had moved or fled in order to bring in more revenues.<sup about="#mwt942" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897_224-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook199897"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-224"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"97"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-224" id="mwB-k"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB-o"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB-s">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB-w">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
<p id="mwB-0">Even with the Jiajing reforms to document migrant workers and merchants, by the late Ming era the government census still did not accurately reflect the enormous growth in population. Gazetteers across the empire noted this and made their own estimations of the overall population in the Ming, some guessing that it had doubled, tripled, or even grown five-fold since 1368.<sup about="#mwt945" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162_230-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998162"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-230"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"162"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-230" id="mwB-4"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB-8"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB_A">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB_E">]</span></span></a></sup> Fairbank estimates a population of 160<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB_I"> </span>million during the late Ming,<sup about="#mwt948" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128_231-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128-231"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Fairbank"},"2":{"wt":"Goldman"},"3":{"wt":"2006"},"p":{"wt":"128"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128-231" id="mwB_M"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB_Q"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB_U">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB_Y">]</span></span></a></sup> while Brook estimates 175<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB_c"> </span>million,<sup about="#mwt951" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162_230-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998162"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-230"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"162"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-230" id="mwB_g"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB_k"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB_o">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB_s">]</span></span></a></sup> and Ebrey estimates 200<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwB_w"> </span>million.<sup about="#mwt954" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195_232-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195-232"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"2":{"wt":"1999"},"p":{"wt":"195"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195-232" id="mwB_0"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwB_4"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwB_8">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwCAA">]</span></span></a></sup> However, a great epidemic that started in Shanxi in 1633, ravaged the densely populated areas along the Grand Canal; a gazetteer in northern Zhejiang noted more than half the population fell ill that year and that 90% of the local populace in one area was dead by 1642.<sup about="#mwt957" class="mw-ref reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163_233-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Transclusion mw:Extension/ref" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"group":"","name":"FOOTNOTEBrook1998163"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163-233"},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"sfnp","href":"./Template:Sfnp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Brook"},"2":{"wt":"1998"},"p":{"wt":"163"}},"i":0}}]}'><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163-233" id="mwCAE"><span class="mw-reflink-text" id="mwCAI"><span class="cite-bracket" id="mwCAM">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket" id="mwCAQ">]</span></span></a></sup></p>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="38" id="mwCAU" aria-labelledby="See_also"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt960" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwCAY" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"div col","href":"./Template:Div_col"},"params":{},"i":0}},"\n* [[1642 Yellow River flood]]\n* [[Architecture of the Ming dynasty]]\n* [[Culture of the Ming dynasty]]\n* [[Economy of the Ming dynasty]]\n** [[Taxation in premodern China]]\n* [[Government of the Ming dynasty]]\n* [[History of the Ming dynasty]]\n* [[Kingdom of Tungning]]\n* [[List of tributary states of China]]\n* [[Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns]]\n* [[Manchuria under Ming rule]]\n* [[Military of the Ming dynasty]]\n* [[Ming ceramics]]\n* [[Ming dynasty in Inner Asia]]\n* [[Chinese emperors family tree (late)#Ming dynasty|Ming dynasty family tree]]\n* [[Ming official headwear]]\n* [[Ming poetry]]\n* [[Transition from Ming to Qing]]\n* [[Ye Chunji]] (for further information on [[rural economics]] in the Ming)\n* [[Zheng Zhilong]]\n",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"div col end","href":"./Template:Div_col_end"},"params":{},"i":1}}]}'><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt961" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Div col/styles.css"}}'>.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></span><div class="div-col " about="#mwt960" id="mwCAc">
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1642_Yellow_River_flood" title="1642 Yellow River flood">1642 Yellow River flood</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Architecture of the Ming dynasty">Architecture of the Ming dynasty</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Culture of the Ming dynasty">Culture of the Ming dynasty</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Economy of the Ming dynasty">Economy of the Ming dynasty</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_premodern_China" title="Taxation in premodern China">Taxation in premodern China</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Government of the Ming dynasty">Government of the Ming dynasty</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="History of the Ming dynasty">History of the Ming dynasty</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tributary_states_of_China" title="List of tributary states of China">List of tributary states of China</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchuan–Pingmian_campaigns" title="Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns">Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria under Ming rule</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Military of the Ming dynasty">Military of the Ming dynasty</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_ceramics" title="Ming ceramics" class="mw-redirect">Ming ceramics</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Ming_dynasty" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)" class="mw-redirect">Ming dynasty family tree</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_official_headwear" title="Ming official headwear" class="mw-redirect">Ming official headwear</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_poetry" title="Ming poetry">Ming poetry</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye_Chunji" title="Ye Chunji">Ye Chunji</a> (for further information on <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">rural economics</a> in the Ming)</li>
|
||
<li><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_Zhilong" title="Zheng Zhilong">Zheng Zhilong</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="39" id="mwCAg" aria-labelledby="Notes"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt963" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwCAk" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"notelist","href":"./Template:Notelist"},"params":{},"i":0}}]}'><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1327269900" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt964" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Reflist/styles.css"}}'>.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:27em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:22.5em}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-alpha]{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-roman]{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-alpha]{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-greek]{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-roman]{list-style-type:lower-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-alpha .references{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-roman .references{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-alpha .references{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-greek .references{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-roman .references{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style></span><div about="#mwt963" id="mwCAo">
|
||
<div class="mw-references-wrap" typeof="mw:Extension/references" about="#mwt965" id="mwCAs" data-mw='{"name":"references","attrs":{"group":"lower-alpha","responsive":"1"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'><ol class="mw-references references" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" id="mwCAw"><li about="#cite_note-1" id="cite_note-1" data-mw-footnote-number="a"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCA0"><a href="#cite_ref-1" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCA4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCA8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-1" class="mw-reference-text reference-text" data-mw-group="lower-alpha">Prior to proclaiming himself emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Wu" title="King of Wu" id="mwCBA">King of Wu</a> in Nanjing in 1364. The regime is known in historiography as the "Western Wu" (<span lang="zh" id="mwCBE"><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" id="mwCBI"/>西吳</span>).</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-2" id="cite_note-2" data-mw-footnote-number="b"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCBM"><a href="#cite_ref-2" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCBQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCBU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-2" class="mw-reference-text reference-text" data-mw-group="lower-alpha">Remnants of the <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu" id="mwCBY">Ming imperial family</a>, whose regimes are collectively called the Southern Ming in historiography, ruled southern China until 1662. The Ming loyalist state <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning" id="mwCBc">Kingdom of Tungning</a> on Taiwan lasted until 1683, but it was not ruled by the Zhu clan and thus usually not considered part of the Southern Ming.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-11" id="cite_note-11" data-mw-footnote-number="c"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCBg"><a href="#cite_ref-11" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCBk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCBo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-11" class="mw-reference-text reference-text" data-mw-group="lower-alpha">For the lower population estimate, see (<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCBs">Fairbank <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCBw">&</span> Goldman 2006</a>:128); for the higher, see (<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCB0">Ebrey 1999</a>:197).</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-131" id="cite_note-131" data-mw-footnote-number="d"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCB4"><a href="#cite_ref-131" data-mw-group="lower-alpha" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCB8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCCA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-131" class="mw-reference-text reference-text" data-mw-group="lower-alpha">For the argument that they increased social mobility see <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHo1962" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCCE">Ho (1962)</a>.</span></li>
|
||
</ol></div></div>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="40" id="mwCCI" aria-labelledby="References"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
|
||
<section data-mw-section-id="41" id="mwCCM" aria-labelledby="Citations"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt966" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwCCQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"reflist","href":"./Template:Reflist"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"20em"}},"i":0}}]}'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1327269900" about="#mwt967" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Reflist/styles.css"}}'/></span><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style="column-width: calc( 0.9 * 20em );" about="#mwt966" id="mwCCU"><ol class="mw-references references" typeof="mw:Extension/references" about="#mwt968" id="mwCCY" data-mw='{"name":"references","attrs":{"group":"","responsive":"0"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'><li about="#cite_note-3" id="cite_note-3" data-mw-footnote-number="1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCCc"><a href="#cite_ref-3" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCCg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCCk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-3" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCCo">Taagepera (1997)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCCs"> </span>500</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-4" id="cite_note-4" data-mw-footnote-number="2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCCw"><a href="#cite_ref-4" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCC0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCC4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-4" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCC8">Turchin, Adams <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCDA">&</span> Hall (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCDE"> </span>222</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-5" id="cite_note-5" data-mw-footnote-number="3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCDI"><a href="#cite_ref-5" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCDM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCDQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-5" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCDU">Taagepera (1997)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCDY"> </span>500</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-6" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-6" data-mw-footnote-number="4"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCDc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259_6-0" id="mwCDg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCDk">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259_6-1" id="mwCDo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCDs">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-6" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHo1959" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCDw">Ho (1959)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCD0"> </span>8–9, 22, 259.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109-7" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109-7" data-mw-footnote-number="5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCD4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109_7-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCD8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCEA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109-7" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFrank1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCEE">Frank (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCEI"> </span>109.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238-8" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238-8" data-mw-footnote-number="6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCEM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238_8-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCEQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCEU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238-8" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFMaddison2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCEY">Maddison (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCEc"> </span>238.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419-9" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419-9" data-mw-footnote-number="7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCEg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419_9-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCEk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCEo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadberry201419-9" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBroadberry2014" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCEs">Broadberry (2014)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCEw"> </span>19.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271-10" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271-10" data-mw-footnote-number="8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCE0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271_10-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCE4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCE8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271-10" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCFA">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCFE">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCFI"> </span>271.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-12" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-12" data-mw-footnote-number="9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCFM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150_12-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCFQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCFU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-12" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFGascoigne2003" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCFY">Gascoigne (2003)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCFc"> </span>150.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191-13" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191-13" data-mw-footnote-number="10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCFg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191_13-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCFk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCFo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191-13" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCFs">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCFw"> </span>190–191.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151-14" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151-14" data-mw-footnote-number="11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCF0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151_14-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCF4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCF8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151-14" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFGascoigne2003" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCGA">Gascoigne (2003)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCGE"> </span>151.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15" data-mw-footnote-number="12"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCGI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_15-0" id="mwCGM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCGQ">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_15-1" id="mwCGU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCGY">2</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_15-2" id="mwCGc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCGg">3</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-15" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCGk">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCGo"> </span>191.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii-16" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii-16" data-mw-footnote-number="13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCGs"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii_16-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCGw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCG0">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii-16" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNaquin2000" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCG4">Naquin (2000)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCG8"> </span>xxxiii.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025-17" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025-17" data-mw-footnote-number="14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCHA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025_17-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCHE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCHI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025-17" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFAndrewRapp2000" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCHM">Andrew <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCHQ">&</span> Rapp (2000)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCHU"> </span>25.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-18" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-18" data-mw-footnote-number="15"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCHY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193_18-0" id="mwCHc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCHg">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193_18-1" id="mwCHk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCHo">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-18" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCHs">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCHw"> </span>192–193.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130-19" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130-19" data-mw-footnote-number="16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCH0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130_19-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCH4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCH8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130-19" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCIA">Fairbank <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCIE">&</span> Goldman (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCII"> </span>130.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130-20" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130-20" data-mw-footnote-number="17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCIM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130_20-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCIQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCIU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130-20" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCIY">Fairbank <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCIc">&</span> Goldman (2006)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCIg"> </span>129–130.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399-21" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399-21" data-mw-footnote-number="18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCIk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399_21-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCIo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCIs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399-21" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson2008" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCIw">Robinson (2008)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCI0"> </span>365–399.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9-22" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9-22" data-mw-footnote-number="19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCI4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9_22-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCI8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCJA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9-22" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson2020" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCJE">Robinson (2020)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCJI"> </span>8–9.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146-23" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146-23" data-mw-footnote-number="20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCJM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146_23-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCJQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCJU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146-23" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson2019" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCJY">Robinson (2019)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCJc"> </span>144–146.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248-24" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248-24" data-mw-footnote-number="21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCJg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248_24-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCJk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCJo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248-24" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson2019" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCJs">Robinson (2019)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCJw"> </span>248.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon199934-25" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon199934-25" data-mw-footnote-number="22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCJ0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon199934_25-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCJ4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCJ8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon199934-25" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFDillon1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCKA">Dillon (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCKE"> </span>34.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197-26" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197-26" data-mw-footnote-number="23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCKI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197_26-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCKM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCKQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197-26" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCKU">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCKY"> </span>197.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144-27" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144-27" data-mw-footnote-number="24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCKc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144_27-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCKg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCKk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144-27" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWang2011" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCKo">Wang (2011)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCKs"> </span>101–144.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2001159-28" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2001159-28" data-mw-footnote-number="25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCKw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsai2001159_28-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCK0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCK4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2001159-28" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFTsai2001" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCK8">Tsai (2001)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCLA"> </span>159.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-29" id="cite_note-29" data-mw-footnote-number="26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCLE"><a href="#cite_ref-29" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCLI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCLM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-29" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFZhangXiang2002" about="#mwt180" typeof="mw:Transclusion" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCLQ" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"harvp","href":"./Template:Harvp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Zhang"},"2":{"wt":"Xiang"},"3":{"wt":"2002"},"p":{"wt":"73"}},"i":0}}]}'>Zhang <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCLU">&</span> Xiang (2002)</a><span about="#mwt180" id="mwCLY">, p.</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt180" id="mwCLc"> </span><span about="#mwt180" id="mwCLg">73</span></span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41-30" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41-30" data-mw-footnote-number="27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCLk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41_30-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCLo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCLs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41-30" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWangNyima1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCLw">Wang <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCL0">&</span> Nyima (1997)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCL4"> </span>39–41.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-31" id="cite_note-31" data-mw-footnote-number="28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCL8"><a href="#cite_ref-31" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCMA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCME">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-31" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHistory_of_Ming" about="#mwt185" typeof="mw:Transclusion" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCMI" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"harvp","href":"./Template:Harvp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"History of Ming"},"loc":{"wt":"Geography I, III; Western Territory III"}},"i":0}}]}'>History of Ming</a><span about="#mwt185" id="mwCMM">, Geography I, III; Western Territory III</span></span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32" data-mw-footnote-number="29"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCMQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-0" id="mwCMU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCMY">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-1" id="mwCMc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCMg">2</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-2" id="mwCMk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCMo">3</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470_32-3" id="mwCMs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCMw">4</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-32" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWylie2003" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCM0">Wylie (2003)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCM4"> </span>470.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40-33" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40-33" data-mw-footnote-number="30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCM8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40_33-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCNA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCNE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40-33" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWangNyima1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCNI">Wang <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCNM">&</span> Nyima (1997)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCNQ"> </span>1–40.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200152-34" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200152-34" data-mw-footnote-number="31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCNU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200152_34-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCNY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCNc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200152-34" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNorbu2001" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCNg">Norbu (2001)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCNk"> </span>52.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732-35" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732-35" data-mw-footnote-number="32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCNo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732_35-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCNs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCNw">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732-35" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFKolmaš1967" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCN0">Kolmaš (1967)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCN4"> </span>32.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40-36" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40-36" data-mw-footnote-number="33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCN8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40_36-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCOA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCOE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40-36" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWangNyima1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCOI">Wang <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCOM">&</span> Nyima (1997)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCOQ"> </span>39–40.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475,_478-37" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475,_478-37" data-mw-footnote-number="34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCOU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475,_478_37-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCOY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCOc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–475,_478-37" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSperling2003" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCOg">Sperling (2003)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCOk"> </span>474–475, 478.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273-38" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273-38" data-mw-footnote-number="35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCOo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273_38-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCOs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCOw">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273-38" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFPerdue2000" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCO0">Perdue (2000)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCO4"> </span>273.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29-39" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29-39" data-mw-footnote-number="36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCO8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29_39-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCPA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCPE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29-39" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFKolmaš1967" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCPI">Kolmaš (1967)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCPM"> </span>28–29.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161-40" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161-40" data-mw-footnote-number="37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCPQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161_40-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCPU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCPY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161-40" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFLanglois1988" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCPc">Langlois (1988)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCPg"> </span>139, 161.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418-41" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418-41" data-mw-footnote-number="38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCPk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418_41-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCPo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCPs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418-41" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFGeiss1988" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCPw">Geiss (1988)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCP0"> </span>417–418.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227-42" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227-42" data-mw-footnote-number="39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCP4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227_42-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCP8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCQA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227-42" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCQE">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCQI"> </span>227.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738-43" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738-43" data-mw-footnote-number="40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCQM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738_43-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCQQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCQU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738-43" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWangNyima1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCQY">Wang <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCQc">&</span> Nyima (1997)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCQg"> </span>38.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31-44" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31-44" data-mw-footnote-number="41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCQk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31_44-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCQo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCQs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31-44" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFKolmaš1967" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCQw">Kolmaš (1967)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCQ0"> </span>30–31.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978-45" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978-45" data-mw-footnote-number="42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCQ4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978_45-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCQ8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCRA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978-45" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFGoldstein1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCRE">Goldstein (1997)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCRI"> </span>8.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-46" id="cite_note-46" data-mw-footnote-number="43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCRM"><a href="#cite_ref-46" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCRQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCRU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-46" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFThe_Ming_Biographical_Dictionary_(1976)" about="#mwt245" typeof="mw:Transclusion" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCRY" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"harvp","href":"./Template:Harvp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"The Ming Biographical Dictionary (1976)"},"p":{"wt":"23"}},"i":0}}]}'>The Ming Biographical Dictionary (1976)</a><span about="#mwt245" id="mwCRc">, p.</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt245" id="mwCRg"> </span><span about="#mwt245" id="mwCRk">23</span></span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35-47" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35-47" data-mw-footnote-number="44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCRo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35_47-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCRs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCRw">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35-47" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFKolmaš1967" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCR0">Kolmaš (1967)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCR4"> </span>34–35.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9-48" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9-48" data-mw-footnote-number="45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCR8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9_48-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCSA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCSE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9-48" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFGoldstein1997" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCSI">Goldstein (1997)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCSM"> </span>6–9.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527-49" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527-49" data-mw-footnote-number="46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCSQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527_49-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCSU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCSY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527-49" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson2000" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCSc">Robinson (2000)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCSg"> </span>527.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284-50" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284-50" data-mw-footnote-number="47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCSk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284_50-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCSo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCSs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284-50" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFAtwell2002" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCSw">Atwell (2002)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCS0"> </span>84.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272-51" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272-51" data-mw-footnote-number="48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCS4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272_51-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCS8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCTA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272-51" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCTE">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCTI">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCTM"> </span>272.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194-52" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194-52" data-mw-footnote-number="49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCTQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194_52-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCTU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCTY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194-52" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCTc">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCTg"> </span>194.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-53" id="cite_note-53" data-mw-footnote-number="50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCTk"><a href="#cite_ref-53" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCTo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCTs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-53" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1333433106" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles mw:Transclusion" about="#mwt280" id="mwCTw" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Sen"},"first":{"wt":"Tansen"},"title":{"wt":"The impact of Zheng He's expeditions on Indian Ocean interactions"},"journal":{"wt":"Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"volume":{"wt":"79"},"issue":{"wt":"3"},"year":{"wt":"2016"},"issn":{"wt":"0041-977X"},"doi":{"wt":"10.1017/s0041977x16001038"},"pages":{"wt":"609–636"}},"i":0}}]}'>.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#bf3c2c)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#bf3c2c)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSen2016" class="citation journal cs2" about="#mwt280">Sen, Tansen (2016), "The impact of Zheng He's expeditions on Indian Ocean interactions", <i id="mwCT0">Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>, <b id="mwCT4">79</b> (3), Cambridge University Press: <span class="nowrap" id="mwCT8">609–</span>636, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwCUA">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x16001038" class="external text" id="mwCUE">10.1017/s0041977x16001038</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" title="ISSN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwCUI">ISSN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCUM"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0041-977X" class="external text" id="mwCUQ">0041-977X</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+Zheng+He%27s+expeditions+on+Indian+Ocean+interactions&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=609-636&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0041977x16001038&rft.issn=0041-977X&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Tansen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988" about="#mwt280" id="mwCUU"></span></span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137-54" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137-54" data-mw-footnote-number="51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCUY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137_54-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCUc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCUg">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137-54" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCUk">Fairbank <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCUo">&</span> Goldman (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCUs"> </span>137.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327-55" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327-55" data-mw-footnote-number="52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCUw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327_55-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCU0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCU4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327-55" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWang1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCU8">Wang (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCVA"> </span>317–327.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-56" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-56" data-mw-footnote-number="53"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCVE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273_56-0" id="mwCVI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCVM">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273_56-1" id="mwCVQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCVU">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-56" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCVY">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCVc">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCVg"> </span>273.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199983-57" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199983-57" data-mw-footnote-number="54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCVk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson199983_57-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCVo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCVs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199983-57" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCVw">Robinson (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCV0"> </span>83.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85-58" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85-58" data-mw-footnote-number="55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCV4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85_58-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCV8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCWA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85-58" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCWE">Robinson (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCWI"> </span>84–85.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–108-59" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–108-59" data-mw-footnote-number="56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCWM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–108_59-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCWQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCWU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–108-59" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCWY">Robinson (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCWc"> </span>79, 101–108.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139-60" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139-60" data-mw-footnote-number="57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCWg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139_60-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCWk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCWo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139-60" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCWs">Fairbank <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCWw">&</span> Goldman (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCW0"> </span>139.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208-61" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208-61" data-mw-footnote-number="58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCW4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208_61-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCW8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCXA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208-61" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCXE">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCXI"> </span>208.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831-62" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831-62" data-mw-footnote-number="59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCXM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195831_62-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCXQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCXU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831-62" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCXY">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCXc"> </span>31.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199916-63" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199916-63" data-mw-footnote-number="60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCXg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199916_63-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCXk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCXo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199916-63" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCXs">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCXw"> </span>16.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-64" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-64" data-mw-footnote-number="61"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCX0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199917_64-0" id="mwCX4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCX8">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199917_64-1" id="mwCYA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCYE">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-64" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCYI">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCYM"> </span>17.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-65" id="cite_note-65" data-mw-footnote-number="62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCYQ"><a href="#cite_ref-65" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCYU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCYY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-65" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt340" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles mw:Transclusion" id="mwCYc" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"url":{"wt":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V6G50MaPJWMC&q=ordos&pg=PA27"},"title":{"wt":"A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592–1598"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-8061-8502-6"},"last":{"wt":"Swope"},"first":{"wt":"Kenneth M."},"date":{"wt":"29 April 2013"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of Oklahoma Press"}},"i":0}}]}'/><cite id="CITEREFSwope2013" class="citation book cs2" about="#mwt340">Swope, Kenneth M. (29 April 2013), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V6G50MaPJWMC&q=ordos&pg=PA27" class="external text" id="mwCYg"><i id="mwCYk">A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592–1598</i></a>, University of Oklahoma Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect" id="mwCYo">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCYs"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8502-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8502-6" id="mwCYw"><bdi id="mwCY0">978-0-8061-8502-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dragon%27s+Head+and+a+Serpent%27s+Tail%3A+Ming+China+and+the+First+Great+East+Asian+War%2C+1592%E2%80%931598&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2013-04-29&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-8502-6&rft.aulast=Swope&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV6G50MaPJWMC%26q%3Dordos%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988" about="#mwt340" id="mwCY4"></span></span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125-66" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125-66" data-mw-footnote-number="63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCY8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125_66-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCZA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCZE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125-66" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSwope2011" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCZI">Swope (2011)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCZM"> </span>122–125.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120-67" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120-67" data-mw-footnote-number="64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCZQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120_67-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCZU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCZY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120-67" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFXie2013" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCZc">Xie (2013)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCZg"> </span>118–120.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165,_281-68" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165,_281-68" data-mw-footnote-number="65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCZk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165,_281_68-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCZo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCZs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164–165,_281-68" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHerman2007" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCZw">Herman (2007)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCZ0"> </span>164–165, 281.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140-69" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140-69" data-mw-footnote-number="66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCZ4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140_69-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCZ8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCaA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140-69" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNess1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCaE">Ness (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCaI"> </span>139–140.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120-70" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120-70" data-mw-footnote-number="67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCaM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120_70-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCaQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCaU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai1996119–120-70" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFTsai1996" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCaY">Tsai (1996)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCac"> </span>119–120.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195-71" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195-71" data-mw-footnote-number="68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCag"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195_71-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCak"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCao">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195-71" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCas">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCaw"> </span>194–195.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811-72" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811-72" data-mw-footnote-number="69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCa0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195811_72-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCa4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCa8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811-72" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCbA">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCbE"> </span>11.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18-73" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18-73" data-mw-footnote-number="70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCbI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18_73-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCbM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCbQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18-73" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCbU">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCbY"> </span>17–18.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613-74" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613-74" data-mw-footnote-number="71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCbc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613_74-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCbg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCbk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell1988612–613-74" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFAtwell1988" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCbo">Atwell (1988)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCbs"> </span>612–613.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24-75" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24-75" data-mw-footnote-number="72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCbw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24_75-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCb0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCb4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker199821–24-75" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCb8">Hucker (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCcA"> </span>21–24.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124-76" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124-76" data-mw-footnote-number="73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCcE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124_76-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCcI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCcM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124-76" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCcQ">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCcU"> </span>124.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20-77" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20-77" data-mw-footnote-number="74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCcY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20_77-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCcc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCcg">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20-77" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCck">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCco"> </span>19–20.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349-78" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349-78" data-mw-footnote-number="75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCcs"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349_78-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCcw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCc0">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349-78" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWills1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCc4">Wills (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCc8"> </span>343–349.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-79" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-79" data-mw-footnote-number="76"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCdA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199920_79-0" id="mwCdE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCdI">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199920_79-1" id="mwCdM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCdQ">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-79" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCdU">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCdY"> </span>20.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205-80" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205-80" data-mw-footnote-number="77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCdc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205_80-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCdg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCdk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205-80" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCdo">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCds"> </span>205.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2019-81" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2019-81" data-mw-footnote-number="78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCdw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELane2019_81-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCd0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCd4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2019-81" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFLane2019" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCd8">Lane (2019)</a>.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208-82" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208-82" data-mw-footnote-number="79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCeA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208_82-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCeE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCeI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208-82" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCeM">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCeQ"> </span>206, 208.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353-83" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353-83" data-mw-footnote-number="80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCeU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353_83-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCeY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCec">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353-83" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWills1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCeg">Wills (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCek"> </span>349–353.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21-84" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21-84" data-mw-footnote-number="81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCeo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21_84-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCes"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCew">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21-84" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCe0">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCe4"> </span>20–21.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489-85" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489-85" data-mw-footnote-number="82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCe8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489_85-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCfA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCfE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489-85" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFAtwell2005" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCfI">Atwell (2005)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCfM"> </span>467–489.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34-86" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34-86" data-mw-footnote-number="83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCfQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34_86-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCfU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCfY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34-86" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSo2012" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCfc">So (2012)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCfg"> </span>4, 17–18, 32–34.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-87" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-87" data-mw-footnote-number="84"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCfk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199921_87-0" id="mwCfo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCfs">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199921_87-1" id="mwCfw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCf0">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-87" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCf4">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCf8"> </span>21.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24-88" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24-88" data-mw-footnote-number="85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCgA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24_88-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCgE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCgI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24-88" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCgM">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCgQ"> </span>22–24.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)-89" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)-89" data-mw-footnote-number="86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCgU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)_89-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCgY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCgc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)-89" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBBC_News_(2004)" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCgg">BBC News (2004)</a>.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-90" id="cite_note-90" data-mw-footnote-number="87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCgk"><a href="#cite_ref-90" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCgo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCgs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-90" class="mw-reference-text reference-text">The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 29</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28-91" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28-91" data-mw-footnote-number="88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCgw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28_91-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCg0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCg4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28-91" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCg8">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwChA"> </span>27-28.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28-92" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28-92" data-mw-footnote-number="89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwChE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28_92-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwChI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwChM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28-92" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwChQ">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwChU"> </span>24, 28.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-93" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-93" data-mw-footnote-number="90"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwChY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200792_93-0" id="mwChc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwChg">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200792_93-1" id="mwChk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCho">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-93" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFChang2007" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwChs">Chang (2007)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwChw"> </span>92.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199931-94" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199931-94" data-mw-footnote-number="91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCh0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199931_94-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCh4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCh8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199931-94" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCiA">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCiE"> </span>31.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22-95" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22-95" data-mw-footnote-number="92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCiI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22_95-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCiM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCiQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22-95" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCiU">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCiY"> </span>21–22.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199925-96" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199925-96" data-mw-footnote-number="93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCic"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199925_96-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCig"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCik">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199925-96" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCio">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCis"> </span>25.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33-97" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33-97" data-mw-footnote-number="94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCiw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33_97-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCi0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCi4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33-97" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCi8">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCjA"> </span>32–33.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199933-98" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199933-98" data-mw-footnote-number="95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCjE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199933_98-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCjI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCjM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199933-98" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCjQ">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCjU"> </span>33.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825-99" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825-99" data-mw-footnote-number="96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCjY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825_99-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCjc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCjg">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–825-99" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFDennerline1985" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCjk">Dennerline (1985)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCjo"> </span>824–825.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002122-100" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002122-100" data-mw-footnote-number="97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCjs"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002122_100-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCjw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCj0">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002122-100" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence2002" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCj4">Spence (2002)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCj8"> </span>122.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003835,_849-101" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003835,_849-101" data-mw-footnote-number="98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCkA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003835,_849_101-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCkE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCkI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003835,_849-101" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFMote2003" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCkM">Mote (2003)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCkQ"> </span>835, 849.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFan201697-102" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFan201697-102" data-mw-footnote-number="99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCkU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFan201697_102-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCkY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCkc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFan201697-102" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFan2016" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCkg">Fan (2016)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCkk"> </span>97.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194-103" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194-103" data-mw-footnote-number="100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCko"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194_103-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCks"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCkw">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194-103" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFYuan1994" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCk0">Yuan (1994)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCk4"> </span>193–194.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398-104" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398-104" data-mw-footnote-number="101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCk8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398_104-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwClA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwClE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398-104" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHartwell1982" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwClI">Hartwell (1982)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwClM"> </span>397–398.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19585-105" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19585-105" data-mw-footnote-number="102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwClQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker19585_105-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwClU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwClY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19585-105" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwClc">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwClg"> </span>5.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-106" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-106" data-mw-footnote-number="103"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwClk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195828_106-0" id="mwClo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCls">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195828_106-1" id="mwClw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCl0">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-106" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCl4">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCl8"> </span>28.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42-107" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42-107" data-mw-footnote-number="104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCmA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42_107-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCmE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCmI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42-107" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFChang2007" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCmM">Chang (2007)</a>, p. 15, footnote 42.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200716-108" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200716-108" data-mw-footnote-number="105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCmQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang200716_108-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCmU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCmY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200716-108" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFChang2007" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCmc">Chang (2007)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCmg"> </span>16.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195816-109" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195816-109" data-mw-footnote-number="106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCmk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195816_109-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCmo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCms">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195816-109" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCmw">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCm0"> </span>16.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195823-110" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195823-110" data-mw-footnote-number="107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCm4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195823_110-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCm8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCnA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195823-110" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCnE">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCnI"> </span>23.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32-111" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32-111" data-mw-footnote-number="108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCnM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32_111-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCnQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCnU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–32-111" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCnY">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCnc"> </span>29–32.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32-112" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32-112" data-mw-footnote-number="109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCng"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32_112-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCnk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCno">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32-112" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCns">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCnw"> </span>31–32.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195832-113" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195832-113" data-mw-footnote-number="110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCn0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195832_113-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCn4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCn8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195832-113" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCoA">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCoE"> </span>32.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833-114" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833-114" data-mw-footnote-number="111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCoI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195833_114-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCoM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCoQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833-114" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCoU">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCoY"> </span>33.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35-115" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35-115" data-mw-footnote-number="112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCoc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35_115-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCog"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCok">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35-115" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCoo">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCos"> </span>33–35.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195835-116" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195835-116" data-mw-footnote-number="113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCow"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195835_116-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCo0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCo4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195835-116" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCo8">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCpA"> </span>35.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-117" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-117" data-mw-footnote-number="114"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCpE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195836_117-0" id="mwCpI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCpM">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195836_117-1" id="mwCpQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCpU">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-117" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCpY">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCpc"> </span>36.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-118" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-118" data-mw-footnote-number="115"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCpg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25_118-0" id="mwCpk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCpo">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25_118-1" id="mwCps"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCpw">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-118" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCp0">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCp4"> </span>24–25.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25-119" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25-119" data-mw-footnote-number="116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCp8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25_119-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCqA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCqE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25-119" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCqI">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCqM"> </span>11, 25.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26-120" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26-120" data-mw-footnote-number="117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCqQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26_120-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCqU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCqY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26-120" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCqc">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCqg"> </span>25–26.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195812-121" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195812-121" data-mw-footnote-number="118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCqk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195812_121-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCqo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCqs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195812-121" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCqw">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCq0"> </span>12.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696-122" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696-122" data-mw-footnote-number="119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCq4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696_122-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCq8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCrA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696-122" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCrE">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCrI">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCrM"> </span>96.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-123" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-123" data-mw-footnote-number="120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCrQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146_123-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCrU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCrY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-123" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCrc">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCrg"> </span>145–146.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202-124" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202-124" data-mw-footnote-number="121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCrk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202_124-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCro"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCrs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202-124" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCrw">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCr0"> </span>198–202.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200-125" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200-125" data-mw-footnote-number="122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCr4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200_125-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCr8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCsA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200-125" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCsE">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCsI"> </span>200.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198-126" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198-126" data-mw-footnote-number="123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCsM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198_126-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCsQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCsU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198-126" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCsY">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCsc"> </span>198.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv-127" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv-127" data-mw-footnote-number="124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCsg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv_127-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCsk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCso">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv-127" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCss">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCsw"> </span>xxv.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14-128" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14-128" data-mw-footnote-number="125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCs0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14_128-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCs4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCs8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14-128" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCtA">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCtE"> </span>11–14.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199-129" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199-129" data-mw-footnote-number="126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCtI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199_129-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCtM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCtQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199-129" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCtU">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCtY"> </span>199.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26-130" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26-130" data-mw-footnote-number="127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCtc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26_130-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCtg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCtk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26-130" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCto">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCts"> </span>15–17, 26.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28-132" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28-132" data-mw-footnote-number="128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCtw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28_132-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCt0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCt4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28-132" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFElman1991" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCt8">Elman (1991)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCuA"> </span>7–28.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392-133" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392-133" data-mw-footnote-number="129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCuE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392_133-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCuI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCuM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392-133" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFElman2000" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCuQ">Elman (2000)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCuU"> </span>380, 394, 392.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818-134" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818-134" data-mw-footnote-number="130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCuY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195818_134-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCuc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCug">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818-134" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCuk">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCuo"> </span>18.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19-135" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19-135" data-mw-footnote-number="131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCus"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19_135-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCuw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCu0">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19-135" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCu4">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCu8"> </span>18–19.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606-136" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606-136" data-mw-footnote-number="132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCvA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606_136-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCvE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCvI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606-136" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFMote2003" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCvM">Mote (2003)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCvQ"> </span>602–606.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19588-137" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19588-137" data-mw-footnote-number="133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCvU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker19588_137-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCvY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCvc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19588-137" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCvg">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCvk"> </span>8.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195826-138" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195826-138" data-mw-footnote-number="134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCvo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195826_138-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCvs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCvw">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195826-138" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCv0">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCv4"> </span>26.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819-139" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819-139" data-mw-footnote-number="135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCv8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195819_139-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCwA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCwE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819-139" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCwI">Hucker (1958)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCwM"> </span>19.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112-140" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112-140" data-mw-footnote-number="136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCwQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112_140-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCwU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCwY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112-140" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCwc">Fairbank <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCwg">&</span> Goldman (2006)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCwk"> </span>109–112.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20-141" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20-141" data-mw-footnote-number="137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCwo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20_141-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCws"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCww">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20-141" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHucker1958" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCw0">Hucker (1958)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCw4"> </span>19–20.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117-142" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117-142" data-mw-footnote-number="138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCw8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117_142-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCxA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCxE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117-142" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFRobinson1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCxI">Robinson (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCxM"> </span>116–117.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105-143" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105-143" data-mw-footnote-number="139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCxQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105_143-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCxU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCxY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105-143" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCxc">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCxg">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCxk"> </span>104–105.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203-144" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203-144" data-mw-footnote-number="140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCxo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203_144-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCxs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCxw">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203-144" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCx0">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCx4"> </span>202–203.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182-145" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182-145" data-mw-footnote-number="141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCx8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182_145-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCyA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCyE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182-145" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFPlaks1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCyI">Plaks (1987)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCyM"> </span>55–182.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524-146" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524-146" data-mw-footnote-number="142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCyQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524_146-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCyU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCyY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524-146" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1959" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCyc">Needham (1959)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCyg"> </span>524.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198569-147" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198569-147" data-mw-footnote-number="143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCyk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargett198569_147-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCyo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCys">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198569-147" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHargett1985" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCyw">Hargett (1985)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCy0"> </span>69.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-148" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-148" data-mw-footnote-number="144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCy4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi_148-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCy8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCzA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-148" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCzE">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCzI"> </span>xxi.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217-149" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217-149" data-mw-footnote-number="145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCzM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217_149-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCzQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCzU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217-149" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCzY">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCzc"> </span>215–217.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319-150" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319-150" data-mw-footnote-number="146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCzg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319_150-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCzk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCzo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319-150" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFChang2007" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwCzs">Chang (2007)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwCzw"> </span>318–319.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318-151" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318-151" data-mw-footnote-number="147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwCz0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang2007318_151-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwCz4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwCz8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318-151" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFChang2007" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC0A">Chang (2007)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC0E"> </span>318.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231-152" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231-152" data-mw-footnote-number="148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC0I"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231_152-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC0M"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC0Q">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231-152" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC0U">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC0Y"> </span>229–231.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201-153" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201-153" data-mw-footnote-number="149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC0c"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201_153-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC0g"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC0k">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201-153" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC0o">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC0s"> </span>201.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206-154" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206-154" data-mw-footnote-number="150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC0w"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206_154-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC00"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC04">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206-154" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC08">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC1A"> </span>206.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-155" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-155" data-mw-footnote-number="151"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC1E"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199910_155-0" id="mwC1I"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC1M">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199910_155-1" id="mwC1Q"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC1U">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-155" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC1Y">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC1c"> </span>10.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225-156" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225-156" data-mw-footnote-number="152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC1g"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225_156-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC1k"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC1o">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225-156" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC1s">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC1w"> </span>224–225.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225-157" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225-157" data-mw-footnote-number="153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225_157-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC14"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC18">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225-157" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC2A">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC2E"> </span>225.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226-158" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226-158" data-mw-footnote-number="154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC2I"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226_158-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC2M"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC2Q">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226-158" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC2U">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC2Y"> </span>225–226.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201211-159" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201211-159" data-mw-footnote-number="155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC2c"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang201211_159-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC2g"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC2k">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201211-159" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWang2012" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC2o">Wang (2012)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC2s"> </span>11.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipman199838–39-160" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipman199838–39-160" data-mw-footnote-number="156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC2w"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipman199838–39_160-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC20"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC24">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELipman199838–39-160" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFLipman1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC28">Lipman (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC3A"> </span>38–39.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172-161" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172-161" data-mw-footnote-number="157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC3E"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172_161-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC3I"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC3M">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172-161" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC3Q">Needham (1965)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC3U"> </span>171–172.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie199815-162" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie199815-162" data-mw-footnote-number="158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC3Y"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeslie199815_162-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC3c"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC3g">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie199815-162" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFLeslie1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC3k">Leslie (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC3o"> </span>15.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32-163" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32-163" data-mw-footnote-number="159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC3s"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32_163-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC3w"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC30">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32-163" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWong1963" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC34">Wong (1963)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC38"> </span>30–32.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38-164" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38-164" data-mw-footnote-number="160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC4A"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38_164-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC4E"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC4I">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38-164" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWhite1966" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC4M">White (1966)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC4Q"> </span>31–38.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-165" id="cite_note-165" data-mw-footnote-number="161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC4U"><a href="#cite_ref-165" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC4Y"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC4c">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-165" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFXu2003" about="#mwt674" typeof="mw:Transclusion" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC4g" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"harvp","href":"./Template:Harvp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Xu"},"2":{"wt":"2003"},"p":{"wt":"47"}},"i":0}}]}'>Xu (2003)</a><span about="#mwt674" id="mwC4k">, p.</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt674" id="mwC4o"> </span><span about="#mwt674" id="mwC4s">47</span>.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166" data-mw-footnote-number="162"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC4w"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282_166-0" id="mwC40"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC44">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282_166-1" id="mwC48"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC5A">2</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282_166-2" id="mwC5E"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC5I">3</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-166" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC5M">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC5Q">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC5U"> </span>282.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281-167" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281-167" data-mw-footnote-number="163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC5Y"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281_167-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC5c"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC5g">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281-167" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC5k">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC5o">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC5s"> </span>281.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-168" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-168" data-mw-footnote-number="164"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC5w"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282_168-0" id="mwC50"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC54">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282_168-1" id="mwC58"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC6A">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-168" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC6E">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC6I">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC6M"> </span>281–282.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283-169" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283-169" data-mw-footnote-number="165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC6Q"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283_169-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC6U"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC6Y">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283-169" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC6c">Ebrey, Walthall <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC6g">&</span> Palais (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC6k"> </span>283.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-170" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-170" data-mw-footnote-number="166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC6o"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158_170-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC6s"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC6w">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-170" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC60">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC64"> </span>158.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230-171" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230-171" data-mw-footnote-number="167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230_171-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC7A"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC7E">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230-171" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC7I">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC7M"> </span>230.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213-172" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213-172" data-mw-footnote-number="168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC7Q"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213_172-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC7U"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC7Y">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213-172" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC7c">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC7g"> </span>213.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206-173" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206-173" data-mw-footnote-number="169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC7k"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206_173-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC7o"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC7s">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206-173" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC7w">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC70"> </span>206.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174" data-mw-footnote-number="170"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199913_174-0" id="mwC78"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC8A">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199913_174-1" id="mwC8E"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC8I">2</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199913_174-2" id="mwC8M"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC8Q">3</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-174" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC8U">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC8Y"> </span>13.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-175" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-175" data-mw-footnote-number="171"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC8c"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13_175-0" id="mwC8g"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC8k">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13_175-1" id="mwC8o"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC8s">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-175" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC8w">Spence (1999)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC80"> </span>12–13.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232-176" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232-176" data-mw-footnote-number="172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232_176-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC88"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC9A">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232-176" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC9E">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC9I"> </span>229, 232.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223-177" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223-177" data-mw-footnote-number="173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC9M"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223_177-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC9Q"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC9U">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223-177" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC9Y">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC9c"> </span>232–223.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer195657-178" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer195657-178" data-mw-footnote-number="174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC9g"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer195657_178-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC9k"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC9o">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer195657-178" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSchafer1956" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC9s">Schafer (1956)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC9w"> </span>57.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179" data-mw-footnote-number="175"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199895_179-0" id="mwC94"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC98">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199895_179-1" id="mwC-A"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC-E">2</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199895_179-2" id="mwC-I"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC-M">3</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-179" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC-Q">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC-U"> </span>95.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199914-180" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199914-180" data-mw-footnote-number="176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC-Y"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence199914_180-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC-c"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC-g">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199914-180" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSpence1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC-k">Spence (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC-o"> </span>14.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40-181" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40-181" data-mw-footnote-number="177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC-s"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40_181-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC-w"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC-0">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40-181" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFZhou1990" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC-4">Zhou (1990)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC-8"> </span>34–40.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134-182" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134-182" data-mw-footnote-number="178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC_A"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134_182-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC_E"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC_I">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990134-182" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHinsch1990" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC_M">Hinsch (1990)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC_Q"> </span>134.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137-183" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137-183" data-mw-footnote-number="179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC_U"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137_183-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC_Y"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC_c">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsch1990137-183" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHinsch1990" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC_g">Hinsch (1990)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC_k"> </span>137.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445-184" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445-184" data-mw-footnote-number="180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC_o"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445_184-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwC_s"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwC_w">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445-184" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1959" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwC_0">Needham (1959)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwC_4"> </span>444–445.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447-185" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447-185" data-mw-footnote-number="181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwC_8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447_185-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDAA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDAE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447-185" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1959" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDAI">Needham (1959)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDAM"> </span>444–447.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1-186" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1-186" data-mw-footnote-number="182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDAQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1_186-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDAU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDAY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1-186" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFWong1963" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDAc">Wong (1963)</a>, p. 31, footnote 1.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110-187" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110-187" data-mw-footnote-number="183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDAg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110_187-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDAk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDAo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110-187" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1959" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDAs">Needham (1959)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDAw"> </span>110.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257-188" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257-188" data-mw-footnote-number="184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDA0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257_188-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDA4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDA8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257-188" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDBA">Needham (1965)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDBE"> </span>255–257.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647-189" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647-189" data-mw-footnote-number="185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDBI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647_189-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDBM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDBQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647-189" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFPeterson1986" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDBU">Peterson (1986)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDBY"> </span>47.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190" data-mw-footnote-number="186"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDBc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-0" id="mwDBg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDBk">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-1" id="mwDBo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDBs">2</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-2" id="mwDBw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDB0">3</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_190-3" id="mwDB4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDB8">4</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-190" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEngelfriet1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDCA">Engelfriet (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDCE"> </span>78.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166-191" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166-191" data-mw-footnote-number="187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDCI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166_191-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDCM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDCQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166-191" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFKuttner1975" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDCU">Kuttner (1975)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDCY"> </span>166.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167-192" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167-192" data-mw-footnote-number="188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDCc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167_192-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDCg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDCk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167-192" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFKuttner1975" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDCo">Kuttner (1975)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDCs"> </span>166–167.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-193" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-193" data-mw-footnote-number="189"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDCw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508_193-0" id="mwDC0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDC4">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508_193-1" id="mwDC8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDDA">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-193" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDDE">Needham (1965)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDDI"> </span>133, 508.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438-194" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438-194" data-mw-footnote-number="190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDDM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438_194-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDDQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDDU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438-194" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDDY">Needham (1965)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDDc"> </span>438.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509-195" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509-195" data-mw-footnote-number="191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDDg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509_195-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDDk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDDo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509-195" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDDs">Needham (1965)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDDw"> </span>509.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511-196" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511-196" data-mw-footnote-number="192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDD0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511_196-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDD4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDD8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511-196" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDEA">Needham (1965)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDEE"> </span>511.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511-197" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511-197" data-mw-footnote-number="193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDEI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511_197-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDEM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDEQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511-197" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDEU">Needham (1965)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDEY"> </span>510–511.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276-198" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276-198" data-mw-footnote-number="194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDEc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276_198-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDEg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDEk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276-198" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDEo">Needham (1965)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDEs"> </span>276.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276-199" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276-199" data-mw-footnote-number="195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDEw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276_199-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDE0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDE4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276-199" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1965" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDE8">Needham (1965)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDFA"> </span>274–276.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103-200" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103-200" data-mw-footnote-number="196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDFE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103_200-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDFI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDFM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103-200" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSong1966" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDFQ">Song (1966)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDFU"> </span>7–30, 84–103.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196-201" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196-201" data-mw-footnote-number="197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDFY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196_201-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDFc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDFg">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196-201" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSong1966" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDFk">Song (1966)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDFo"> </span>171–72, 189, 196.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668-202" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668-202" data-mw-footnote-number="198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDFs"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668_202-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDFw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDF0">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668-202" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1971" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDF4">Needham (1971)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDF8"> </span>668.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69-203" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69-203" data-mw-footnote-number="199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDGA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69_203-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDGE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDGI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69-203" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1971" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDGM">Needham (1971)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDGQ"> </span>634, 649–50, 668–69.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong196636–36-204" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong196636–36-204" data-mw-footnote-number="200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDGU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong196636–36_204-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDGY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDGc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong196636–36-204" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSong1966" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDGg">Song (1966)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDGk"> </span>36–36.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190-205" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190-205" data-mw-footnote-number="201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDGo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190_205-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDGs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDGw">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190-205" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFSong1966" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDG0">Song (1966)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDG4"> </span>237, 190.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126-206" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126-206" data-mw-footnote-number="202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDG8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126_206-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDHA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDHE">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126-206" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDHI">Needham (1987)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDHM"> </span>126.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff-207" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff-207" data-mw-footnote-number="203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDHQ"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff_207-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDHU"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDHY">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff-207" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDHc">Needham (1987)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDHg"> </span>205, 339ff.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66-208" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66-208" data-mw-footnote-number="204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDHk"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66_208-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDHo"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDHs">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66-208" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1984" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDHw">Needham (1984)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDH0"> </span>65–66.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372-209" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372-209" data-mw-footnote-number="205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDH4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372_209-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDH8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDIA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372-209" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDIE">Needham (1987)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDII"> </span>372.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25-210" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25-210" data-mw-footnote-number="206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDIM"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25_210-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDIQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDIU">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25-210" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDIY">Needham (1987)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDIc"> </span>24–25.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264-211" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264-211" data-mw-footnote-number="207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDIg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264_211-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDIk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDIo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264-211" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDIs">Needham (1987)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDIw"> </span>264.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205-212" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205-212" data-mw-footnote-number="208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDI0"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205_212-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDI4"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDI8">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205-212" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDJA">Needham (1987)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDJE"> </span>203–205.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205-213" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205-213" data-mw-footnote-number="209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDJI"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205_213-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDJM"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDJQ">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205-213" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDJU">Needham (1987)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDJY"> </span>205.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502-214" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502-214" data-mw-footnote-number="210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDJc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502_214-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDJg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDJk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502-214" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDJo">Needham (1987)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDJs"> </span>498–502.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508-215" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508-215" data-mw-footnote-number="211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDJw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508_215-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDJ0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDJ4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508-215" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDJ8">Needham (1987)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDKA"> </span>508.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229-216" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229-216" data-mw-footnote-number="212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDKE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229_216-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDKI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDKM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229-216" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFNeedham1987" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDKQ">Needham (1987)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDKU"> </span>229.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-217" id="cite_note-217" data-mw-footnote-number="213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDKY"><a href="#cite_ref-217" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDKc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDKg">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-217" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFYanivBachrach2005" about="#mwt876" typeof="mw:Transclusion" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDKk" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"harvp","href":"./Template:Harvp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Yaniv"},"2":{"wt":"Bachrach"},"3":{"wt":"2005"},"p":{"wt":"37"}},"i":0}}]}'>Yaniv <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDKo">&</span> Bachrach (2005)</a><span about="#mwt876" id="mwDKs">, p.</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt876" id="mwDKw"> </span><span about="#mwt876" id="mwDK0">37</span></span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-218" id="cite_note-218" data-mw-footnote-number="214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDK4"><a href="#cite_ref-218" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDK8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDLA">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-218" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFHopkins2002" about="#mwt878" typeof="mw:Transclusion" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDLE" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"harvp","href":"./Template:Harvp"},"params":{"1":{"wt":"Hopkins"},"2":{"wt":"2002"},"p":{"wt":"[https://archive.org/details/greatestkillersm0000hopk/page/110 110]"},"ps":{"wt":": \"Inoculation had been a popular folk practice&nbsp;... in all, some fifty texts on the treatment of smallpox are known to have been published in China during the Ming dynasty.\""}},"i":0}}]}'>Hopkins (2002)</a><span about="#mwt878" id="mwDLI">, p.</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt878" id="mwDLM"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://archive.org/details/greatestkillersm0000hopk/page/110" about="#mwt878" class="external text" id="mwDLQ">110</a><span about="#mwt878" id="mwDLU">: "Inoculation had been a popular folk practice</span><span typeof="mw:Entity" about="#mwt878" id="mwDLY"> </span><span about="#mwt878" id="mwDLc">... in all, some fifty texts on the treatment of smallpox are known to have been published in China during the Ming dynasty."</span></span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)-219" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)-219" data-mw-footnote-number="215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDLg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)_219-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDLk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDLo">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)-219" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDLs">The Library of Congress (2007)</a>.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220" data-mw-footnote-number="216"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDLw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_220-0" id="mwDL0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDL4">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_220-1" id="mwDL8"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDMA">2</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_220-2" id="mwDME"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDMI">3</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-220" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDMM">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDMQ"> </span>28.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827-221" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827-221" data-mw-footnote-number="217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDMU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199827_221-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDMY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDMc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827-221" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDMg">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDMk"> </span>27.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-222" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-222" data-mw-footnote-number="218"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDMo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267_222-0" id="mwDMs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDMw">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267_222-1" id="mwDM0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDM4">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-222" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDM8">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDNA"> </span>267.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-223" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-223" data-mw-footnote-number="219"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDNE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99_223-0" id="mwDNI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDNM">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99_223-1" id="mwDNQ"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDNU">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-223" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDNY">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDNc"> </span>97–99.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-224" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-224" data-mw-footnote-number="220"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDNg"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897_224-0" id="mwDNk"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDNo">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897_224-1" id="mwDNs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDNw">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-224" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDN0">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDN4"> </span>97.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-225" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-225" data-mw-footnote-number="221"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDN8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267_225-0" id="mwDOA"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDOE">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267_225-1" id="mwDOI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDOM">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-225" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDOQ">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDOU"> </span>28, 267.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201-226" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201-226" data-mw-footnote-number="222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDOY"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201_226-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDOc"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDOg">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–201-226" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFKinney1995" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDOk">Kinney (1995)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDOo"> </span>200–201.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28-227" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28-227" data-mw-footnote-number="223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDOs"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28_227-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDOw"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDO0">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28-227" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDO4">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDO8"> </span>27–28.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286-228" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286-228" data-mw-footnote-number="224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDPA"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286_228-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDPE"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDPI">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286-228" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFAtwell2002" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDPM">Atwell (2002)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDPQ"> </span>86.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96-229" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96-229" data-mw-footnote-number="225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDPU"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96_229-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDPY"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDPc">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96-229" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDPg">Brook (1998)</a>, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDPk"> </span>94–96.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-230" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-230" data-mw-footnote-number="226"><span rel="mw:referencedBy" class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDPo"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162_230-0" id="mwDPs"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDPw">1</span></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162_230-1" id="mwDP0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDP4">2</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-230" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDP8">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDQA"> </span>162.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128-231" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128-231" data-mw-footnote-number="227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDQE"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128_231-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDQI"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDQM">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128-231" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDQQ">Fairbank <span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDQU">&</span> Goldman (2006)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDQY"> </span>128.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195-232" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195-232" data-mw-footnote-number="228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDQc"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195_232-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDQg"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDQk">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195-232" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFEbrey1999" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDQo">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDQs"> </span>195.</span></li>
|
||
<li about="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163-233" id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163-233" data-mw-footnote-number="229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" id="mwDQw"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163_233-0" rel="mw:referencedBy" id="mwDQ0"><span class="mw-linkback-text" id="mwDQ4">↑</span></a></span> <span id="mw-reference-text-cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163-233" class="mw-reference-text reference-text"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="#CITEREFBrook1998" class="mw-selflink-fragment" id="mwDQ8">Brook (1998)</a>, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwDRA"> </span>163.</span></li>
|
||
</ol></div>
|
||
|
||
</section><section data-mw-section-id="42" id="mwDRE" aria-labelledby="Works_cited"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div>
|
||
<span class="mw-empty-elt" about="#mwt969" typeof="mw:Transclusion" id="mwDRI" data-mw='{"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Refbegin","href":"./Template:Refbegin"},"params":{"colwidth":{"wt":"30em"}},"i":0}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"given1":{"wt":"Anita N."},"surname1":{"wt":"Andrew"},"given2":{"wt":"John A."},"surname2":{"wt":"Rapp"},"title":{"wt":"Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu"},"location":{"wt":"Lanham"},"publisher":{"wt":"Rowman & Littlefield"},"year":{"wt":"2000"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-8476-9580-5"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":1}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Atwell"},"given":{"wt":"William S."},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1988"},"isbn":{"wt":"0521243327"},"editor-last":{"wt":"Twitchett"},"editor-first":{"wt":"Denis C"},"editor-link":{"wt":"Denis Twitchett"},"edition":{"wt":"1st"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge"},"pages":{"wt":"585–640"},"chapter":{"wt":"The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644"},"editor-last2":{"wt":"Mote"},"editor-first2":{"wt":"Frederick W."},"editor-link2":{"wt":"Frederick W. Mote"}},"i":2}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Atwell"},"given":{"wt":"William S."},"title":{"wt":"Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the 'Great Depression' of the Mid-Fifteenth Century"},"journal":{"wt":"The Journal of Asian Studies"},"volume":{"wt":"61"},"issue":{"wt":"1"},"year":{"wt":"2002"},"pages":{"wt":"83–113"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/2700190"},"jstor":{"wt":"2700190"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":3}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Atwell"},"given":{"wt":"William S."},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Another Look at Silver Imports into China, ca. 1635–1644"},"journal":{"wt":"Journal of World History"},"date":{"wt":"2005"},"volume":{"wt":"16"},"issue":{"wt":"4"},"pages":{"wt":"467–489"},"doi":{"wt":"10.1353/jwh.2006.0013"},"jstor":{"wt":"20079347"},"s2cid":{"wt":"162090282"}},"i":4}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite web ","href":"./Template:Cite_web"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Broadberry"},"given":{"wt":"Stephen"},"year":{"wt":"2014"},"title":{"wt":"China, Europe and the Great Divergence: a Study in National Accounting, 980–1850"},"url":{"wt":"https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140913073301/http://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf"},"archive-date":{"wt":"13 September 2014"},"url-status":{"wt":"live"},"publisher":{"wt":"Economic History Association"},"access-date":{"wt":"15 August 2020"}},"i":5}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Brook"},"given":{"wt":"Timothy"},"title":{"wt":"The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China"},"location":{"wt":"Berkeley"},"publisher":{"wt":"[[University of California Press]]"},"year":{"wt":"1998"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-520-22154-3"},"title-link":{"wt":"The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":6}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Chang"},"given":{"wt":"Michael G."},"title":{"wt":"A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring & the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge"},"publisher":{"wt":"[[Harvard University Press]]"},"year":{"wt":"2007"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-674-02454-0"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":7}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"title":{"wt":"The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve"},"given":{"wt":"Jerry P."},"surname":{"wt":"Dennerline"},"journal":{"wt":"The Journal of Asian Studies"},"volume":{"wt":"44"},"issue":{"wt":"4"},"year":{"wt":"1985"},"pages":{"wt":"824–825"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/2056469"},"jstor":{"wt":"2056469"},"s2cid":{"wt":"162510092"}},"i":8}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"url":{"wt":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA34"},"title":{"wt":"China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects"},"given":{"wt":"Michael"},"surname":{"wt":"Dillon"},"year":{"wt":"1999"},"publisher":{"wt":"Curzon Press"},"location":{"wt":"Richmond"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-7007-1026-3"},"access-date":{"wt":"28 June 2010"}},"i":9}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"given1":{"wt":"Patricia Buckley"},"surname1":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"given2":{"wt":"Anne"},"surname2":{"wt":"Walthall"},"given3":{"wt":"James B."},"surname3":{"wt":"Palais"},"title":{"wt":"East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History"},"location":{"wt":"Boston"},"publisher":{"wt":"Houghton Mifflin Company"},"year":{"wt":"2006"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-618-13384-0"},"url":{"wt":"https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":10}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"given":{"wt":"Patricia Buckley"},"surname":{"wt":"Ebrey"},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge Illustrated History of China"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1999"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-521-66991-7"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"url":{"wt":"https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00ebre"}},"i":11}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Elman"},"given":{"wt":"Benjamin A."},"title":{"wt":"Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China"},"journal":{"wt":"The Journal of Asian Studies"},"date":{"wt":"1991"},"volume":{"wt":"50"},"issue":{"wt":"1"},"pages":{"wt":"7–28"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/2057472"},"jstor":{"wt":"2057472"},"s2cid":{"wt":"154406547"},"url":{"wt":"https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf"},"archive-date":{"wt":"10 October 2022"},"url-status":{"wt":"live"},"oclc":{"wt":"2057472"}},"i":12}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Elman"},"first":{"wt":"Benjamin A."},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China"},"date":{"wt":"2000"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of California Press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-520-92147-4"}},"i":13}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Engelfriet"},"given":{"wt":"Peter M."},"title":{"wt":"Euclid in China: The Genesis of the First Translation of Euclid's Elements in 1607 & Its Reception Up to 1723"},"location":{"wt":"Leiden"},"publisher":{"wt":"[[Koninklijke Brill]]"},"year":{"wt":"1998"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-90-04-10944-5"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":14}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname1":{"wt":"Fairbank"},"given1":{"wt":"John King"},"surname2":{"wt":"Goldman"},"given2":{"wt":"Merle"},"title":{"wt":"China: A New History"},"place":{"wt":"Cambridge"},"publisher":{"wt":"Harvard University Press"},"edition":{"wt":"2nd"},"year":{"wt":"2006"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-674-01828-0"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":15}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Fan"},"first":{"wt":"C. Simon"},"title":{"wt":"Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character"},"publisher":{"wt":"Routledge"},"year":{"wt":"2016"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-1-317-24183-6"}},"i":16}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Frank"},"first":{"wt":"Andre Gunder"},"title":{"wt":"ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age"},"date":{"wt":"1998"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of California Press"},"location":{"wt":"Berkeley; London"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-520-21129-2"}},"i":17}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Goodrich"},"given":{"wt":"Luther Carrington"},"title":{"wt":"Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644"},"date":{"wt":"1976"},"publisher":{"wt":"Columbia University Press"},"location":{"wt":"New York"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-231-03833-1"},"ref":{"wt":"{{sfnRef|The Ming Biographical Dictionary (1976)}}"}},"i":18}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Gascoigne"},"given":{"wt":"Bamber"},"title":{"wt":"The Dynasties of China: A History"},"location":{"wt":"New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Carroll & Graf"},"year":{"wt":"2003"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-7867-1219-9"},"url":{"wt":"https://archive.org/details/dynastiesofchina00gasc"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":19}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Geiss"},"given":{"wt":"James"},"chapter":{"wt":"The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521"},"pages":{"wt":"403–439"},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1"},"editor1-given":{"wt":"Frederick W."},"editor1-surname":{"wt":"Mote"},"editor2-given":{"wt":"Denis"},"editor2-surname":{"wt":"Twitchett"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge and New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1988"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-521-24332-2"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":20}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Goldstein"},"given":{"wt":"Melvyn C."},"title":{"wt":"The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet and the Dalai Lama"},"location":{"wt":"Berkeley"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of California Press"},"year":{"wt":"1997"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-520-21951-9"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":21}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Hargett"},"given":{"wt":"James M."},"title":{"wt":"Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)"},"journal":{"wt":"Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews"},"year":{"wt":"1985"},"volume":{"wt":"7"},"issue":{"wt":"1/2"},"pages":{"wt":"67–93"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/495194"},"jstor":{"wt":"495194"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":22}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Hartwell"},"given":{"wt":"Robert M."},"title":{"wt":"Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750–1550"},"journal":{"wt":"Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies"},"volume":{"wt":"42"},"issue":{"wt":"2"},"year":{"wt":"1982"},"pages":{"wt":"365–442"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/2718941"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"jstor":{"wt":"2718941"}},"i":23}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Herman"},"given":{"wt":"John E."},"title":{"wt":"Amid the Clouds and Mist: China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200–1700"},"date":{"wt":"2007"},"publisher":{"wt":"Harvard University Asia Center"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-674-02591-2"},"edition":{"wt":"Illustrated"},"url":{"wt":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MWxwAAAAMAAJ&q=bozhou+yang"}},"i":24}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Hinsch"},"given":{"wt":"Bret"},"editor-first1":{"wt":"Bret"},"editor-last1":{"wt":"Hinsch"},"title":{"wt":"Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of California Press"},"date":{"wt":"1990"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-520-91265-6"},"doi":{"wt":"10.1525/9780520912656"}},"i":25}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Ho"},"given":{"wt":"Ping-ti"},"title":{"wt":"Studies on the Population of China: 1368–1953"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge, Massachusetts"},"publisher":{"wt":"Harvard University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1982"},"orig-year":{"wt":"1959"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-674-85245-7"},"ref":{"wt":"{{sfnref|Ho|1959}}"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":26}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Ho"},"first":{"wt":"Ping-Ti"},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"The Ladder of Success in Imperial China"},"date":{"wt":"1962"},"publisher":{"wt":"Columbia University Press"},"location":{"wt":"New York"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-231-89496-8"}},"i":27}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Hopkins"},"first":{"wt":"Donald R."},"title":{"wt":"The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History"},"url":{"wt":"https://archive.org/details/greatestkillersm0000hopk"},"url-access":{"wt":"registration"},"date":{"wt":"2002"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of Chicago Press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-226-35168-1"}},"i":28}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Hucker"},"given":{"wt":"Charles O."},"title":{"wt":"Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty"},"journal":{"wt":"Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies"},"volume":{"wt":"21"},"year":{"wt":"1958"},"pages":{"wt":"1–66"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/2718619"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"jstor":{"wt":"2718619"}},"i":29}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Hucker"},"given":{"wt":"Charles O."},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge History of China 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368 — 1644, Part 2"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1998"},"isbn":{"wt":"0521243335"},"editor-last":{"wt":"Mote"},"editor-first":{"wt":"Frederick W."},"editor-link":{"wt":"Frederick W. Mote"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge"},"pages":{"wt":"9–105"},"chapter":{"wt":"Ming government"},"editor-last2":{"wt":"Twitchett"},"editor-first2":{"wt":"Denis C"},"editor-link2":{"wt":"Denis Twitchett"}},"i":30}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Kinney"},"first":{"wt":"Anne Behnke"},"title":{"wt":"Chinese Views of Childhood"},"date":{"wt":"1995"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of Hawai'i Press"},"jstor":{"wt":"j.ctt6wr0q3"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-8248-1681-0"}},"i":31}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Kolmaš"},"given":{"wt":"Josef"},"title":{"wt":"Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-Tibetan Relations Up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912: Occasional Paper 7"},"location":{"wt":"Canberra"},"publisher":{"wt":"The Australian National University, Centre of Oriental Studies"},"year":{"wt":"1967"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":32}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Kuttner"},"given":{"wt":"Fritz A."},"title":{"wt":"Prince Chu Tsai-Yü's Life and Work: A Re-Evaluation of His Contribution to Equal Temperament Theory"},"journal":{"wt":"Ethnomusicology"},"volume":{"wt":"19"},"issue":{"wt":"2"},"year":{"wt":"1975"},"pages":{"wt":"163–206"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/850355"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"jstor":{"wt":"850355"},"s2cid":{"wt":"160016226"},"url":{"wt":"https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eae2/c125193984891c6b0ffa4396e8249cf3a5b3.pdf"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200226054318/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eae2/c125193984891c6b0ffa4396e8249cf3a5b3.pdf"},"url-status":{"wt":"dead"},"archive-date":{"wt":"26 February 2020"}},"i":33}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Langlois"},"given":{"wt":"John D. Jr."},"chapter":{"wt":"The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398"},"pages":{"wt":"107–181"},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1"},"editor1-given":{"wt":"Frederick W."},"editor1-surname":{"wt":"Mote"},"editor2-given":{"wt":"Denis"},"editor2-surname":{"wt":"Twitchett"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge and New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1988"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-521-24332-2"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":34}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Cite web ","href":"./Template:Cite_web"},"params":{"url":{"wt":"https://aeon.co/essays/potosi-the-mountain-of-silver-that-was-the-first-global-city"},"title":{"wt":"Potosí: the mountain of silver that was the first global city"},"last":{"wt":"Lane"},"first":{"wt":"Kris"},"date":{"wt":"30 July 2019"},"website":{"wt":"[[Aeon (digital magazine)|Aeon]]"},"access-date":{"wt":"4 August 2019"},"archive-date":{"wt":"9 January 2021"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210109144110/https://aeon.co/essays/potosi-the-mountain-of-silver-that-was-the-first-global-city"},"url-status":{"wt":"dead"}},"i":35}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite web ","href":"./Template:Cite_web"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Leslie"},"first":{"wt":"Donald D."},"title":{"wt":"The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims"},"url":{"wt":"http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf"},"website":{"wt":"www.islamicpopulation.com"},"publisher":{"wt":"The 59th George E. Morrison Lecture in Ethnology"},"access-date":{"wt":"26 March 2021"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf"},"archive-date":{"wt":"17 December 2010"},"date":{"wt":"1998"},"url-status":{"wt":"dead"}},"i":36}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Lipman"},"given":{"wt":"Jonathan N."},"title":{"wt":"Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China"},"location":{"wt":"Seattle"},"publisher":{"wt":"[[University of Washington Press]]"},"year":{"wt":"1998"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":37}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Mote"},"given":{"wt":"Frederick W."},"title":{"wt":"Imperial China, 900–1800"},"year":{"wt":"2003"},"publisher":{"wt":"[[Harvard University Press]]"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-674-01212-7"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge, Massachusetts"}},"i":38}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Maddison"},"given":{"wt":"Angus"},"title":{"wt":"Development Centre Studies The World Economy Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics"},"date":{"wt":"2006"},"publisher":{"wt":"OECD Publishing"},"location":{"wt":"Paris"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-92-64-02262-1"}},"i":39}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Naquin"},"given":{"wt":"Susan"},"title":{"wt":"Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900"},"year":{"wt":"2000"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of California press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-520-21991-5"},"location":{"wt":"Berkeley"},"page":{"wt":"xxxiii"}},"i":40}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Needham"},"given":{"wt":"Joseph"},"author-link":{"wt":"Joseph Needham"},"title":{"wt":"Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1959"},"bibcode":{"wt":"1959scc3.book.....N"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":41}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Needham"},"given":{"wt":"Joseph"},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1965"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":42}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Needham"},"given":{"wt":"Joseph"},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1971"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":43}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Needham"},"given":{"wt":"Joseph"},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2: Agriculture"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1984"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":44}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Needham"},"given":{"wt":"Joseph"},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1987"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":45}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite thesis ","href":"./Template:Cite_thesis"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Ness"},"first":{"wt":"John Philip"},"title":{"wt":"The Southwestern Frontier During the Ming Dynasty"},"date":{"wt":"1998"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of Minnesota"},"type":{"wt":"PhD thesis"},"url":{"wt":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GI9U6sj_NWMC&q=bozhou+yang"}},"i":46}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Norbu"},"given":{"wt":"Dawa"},"title":{"wt":"China's Tibet Policy"},"location":{"wt":"Richmond"},"publisher":{"wt":"Curzon"},"year":{"wt":"2001"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-7007-0474-3"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":47}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Perdue"},"given":{"wt":"Peter C."},"chapter":{"wt":"Culture, History, and Imperial Chinese Strategy: Legacies of the Qing Conquests"},"pages":{"wt":"252–287"},"title":{"wt":"Warfare in Chinese History"},"editor-given":{"wt":"Hans"},"editor-surname":{"wt":"van de Ven"},"location":{"wt":"Leiden"},"publisher":{"wt":"Koninklijke Brill"},"year":{"wt":"2000"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-90-04-11774-7"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":48}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Peterson"},"first":{"wt":"Willard J."},"title":{"wt":"Calendar Reform Prior to the Arrival of Missionaries at the Ming Court"},"journal":{"wt":"Ming Studies"},"volume":{"wt":"1986"},"issue":{"wt":"1"},"date":{"wt":"1986"},"pages":{"wt":"45–61"},"doi":{"wt":"10.1179/014703786788764194"}},"i":49}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Plaks"},"first":{"wt":"Andrew. H"},"author-link":{"wt":"Andrew H. Plaks"},"title":{"wt":"Chin P'ing Mei: Inversion of Self-cultivation"},"journal":{"wt":"The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel: Ssu Ta Ch'i-shu"},"date":{"wt":"1987"},"pages":{"wt":"55–182"},"publisher":{"wt":"Princeton University Press"},"jstor":{"wt":"j.ctt17t75h5"}},"i":50}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Robinson"},"given":{"wt":"David M."},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461"},"journal":{"wt":"Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies"},"volume":{"wt":"59"},"issue":{"wt":"1"},"year":{"wt":"1999"},"pages":{"wt":"79–123"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/2652684"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"jstor":{"wt":"2652684"}},"i":51}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Robinson"},"given":{"wt":"David M."},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525)"},"journal":{"wt":"Journal of Social History"},"year":{"wt":"2000"},"volume":{"wt":"33"},"issue":{"wt":"3"},"pages":{"wt":"527–563"},"doi":{"wt":"10.1353/jsh.2000.0035"},"s2cid":{"wt":"144496554"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":52}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Robinson"},"given":{"wt":"David M."},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"chapter":{"wt":"The Ming court and the legacy of the Yuan Mongols"},"pages":{"wt":"365–421"},"chapter-url":{"wt":"http://www.history.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/documents/readings/robinson_culture_courtiers_ch.8.pdf"},"title":{"wt":"Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)"},"editor-surname":{"wt":"Robinson"},"editor-given":{"wt":"David M."},"publisher":{"wt":"Harvard University Asia Center"},"year":{"wt":"2008"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-674-02823-4"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"access-date":{"wt":"3 May 2016"},"archive-date":{"wt":"11 June 2016"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160611124056/http://www.history.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/documents/readings/robinson_culture_courtiers_ch.8.pdf"},"url-status":{"wt":"dead"}},"i":53}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Robinson"},"given":{"wt":"David M."},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia"},"date":{"wt":"2019"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-1-108-68279-4"}},"i":54}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Robinson"},"first":{"wt":"David M."},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Ming China and its Allies: Imperial Rule in Eurasia"},"date":{"wt":"2020"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-1-108-48922-5"},"pages":{"wt":"8–9"},"edition":{"wt":"illustrated"}},"i":55}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Spence"},"first":{"wt":"Jonathan D"},"author-link":{"wt":"Jonathan Spence"},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"2002"},"isbn":{"wt":"0-521-24334-3"},"editor-last":{"wt":"Peterson"},"editor-first":{"wt":"Willard J"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge"},"pages":{"wt":"120–182"},"chapter":{"wt":"The K'ang-hsi Reign"}},"i":56}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Schafer"},"given":{"wt":"Edward H."},"title":{"wt":"The Development of Bathing Customs in Ancient and Medieval China and the History of the Floriate Clear Palace"},"journal":{"wt":"Journal of the American Oriental Society"},"volume":{"wt":"76"},"issue":{"wt":"2"},"year":{"wt":"1956"},"pages":{"wt":"57–82"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/595074"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"jstor":{"wt":"595074"}},"i":57}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"So"},"first":{"wt":"Billy Kee Long"},"title":{"wt":"The Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China: Connecting Money, Markets, and Institutions"},"date":{"wt":"2012"},"publisher":{"wt":"Routledge"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-415-50896-4"}},"i":58}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Song"},"given":{"wt":"Yingxing"},"title":{"wt":"T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century"},"others":{"wt":"translated with preface by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun"},"location":{"wt":"University Park"},"publisher":{"wt":"[[Pennsylvania State University Press]]"},"year":{"wt":"1966"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":59}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Spence"},"given":{"wt":"Jonathan D."},"author-link":{"wt":"Jonathan Spence"},"title":{"wt":"[[The Search For Modern China]]"},"location":{"wt":"New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"[[W. W. Norton]]"},"edition":{"wt":"2nd"},"year":{"wt":"1999"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-393-97351-8"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":60}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Sperling"},"given":{"wt":"Elliot"},"chapter":{"wt":"The 5th Karma-pa and some aspects of the relationship between Tibet and the Early Ming"},"pages":{"wt":"473–482"},"title":{"wt":"The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy"},"editor-given":{"wt":"Alex"},"editor-surname":{"wt":"McKay"},"location":{"wt":"New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Routledge"},"year":{"wt":"2003"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-415-30843-4"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":61}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Swope"},"first":{"wt":"Kenneth M."},"editor1-last":{"wt":"Aung-Thwin"},"editor1-first":{"wt":"Michael Arthur"},"editor2-last":{"wt":"Hall"},"editor2-first":{"wt":"Kenneth R."},"title":{"wt":"New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations"},"date":{"wt":"2011"},"publisher":{"wt":"Routledge"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-1-136-81964-3"},"chapter-url":{"wt":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvWrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124"},"chapter":{"wt":"6 To catch a tiger The Eupression of the Yang Yinglong Miao uprising (1578–1600) as a case study in Ming military and borderlands history"}},"i":62}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Taagepera"},"first":{"wt":"Rein"},"date":{"wt":"September 1997"},"title":{"wt":"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"},"journal":{"wt":"[[International Studies Quarterly]]"},"volume":{"wt":"41"},"issue":{"wt":"3"},"pages":{"wt":"475–504"},"doi":{"wt":"10.1111/0020-8833.00053"},"jstor":{"wt":"2600793"},"author-link":{"wt":"Rein Taagepera"},"url":{"wt":"http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807"},"url-access":{"wt":"subscription"},"archive-date":{"wt":"19 November 2018"},"access-date":{"wt":"10 November 2018"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807"},"url-status":{"wt":"live"}},"i":63}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Tsai"},"first":{"wt":"Shih-shan Henry"},"title":{"wt":"The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty"},"date":{"wt":"1996"},"publisher":{"wt":"SUNY Press"},"location":{"wt":"Albany"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-7914-2687-6"}},"i":64}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Tsai"},"first":{"wt":"Shih-shan Henry"},"author-mask":{"wt":"3"},"title":{"wt":"Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle"},"date":{"wt":"2001"},"publisher":{"wt":"University of Washington Press"},"location":{"wt":"Seattle"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-295-80022-6"}},"i":65}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite web ","href":"./Template:Cite_web"},"params":{"title":{"wt":"Tsunami among world's worst disasters"},"url":{"wt":"https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4128509.stm"},"website":{"wt":"BBC News"},"access-date":{"wt":"26 March 2021"},"date":{"wt":"30 December 2004"},"ref":{"wt":"{{sfnRef|BBC News (2004)}}"},"archive-date":{"wt":"27 February 2021"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210227221958/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4128509.stm"},"url-status":{"wt":"live"}},"i":66}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"last1":{"wt":"Turchin"},"first1":{"wt":"Peter"},"last2":{"wt":"Adams"},"first2":{"wt":"Jonathan M."},"last3":{"wt":"Hall"},"first3":{"wt":"Thomas D"},"date":{"wt":"December 2006"},"title":{"wt":"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"},"url":{"wt":"http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381"},"journal":{"wt":"Journal of World-Systems Research"},"volume":{"wt":"12"},"issue":{"wt":"2"},"access-date":{"wt":"16 September 2016"},"archive-date":{"wt":"13 August 2025"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20250813202448/https://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381"},"url-status":{"wt":"live"}},"i":67}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Wang"},"given":{"wt":"Gungwu"},"chapter":{"wt":"Ming Foreign Relations: Southeast Asia"},"pages":{"wt":"301–332"},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2"},"editor1-given":{"wt":"Denis"},"editor1-surname":{"wt":"Twitchett"},"editor2-given":{"wt":"Frederick W."},"editor2-surname":{"wt":"Mote"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge and New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1998"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-521-24333-9"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":68}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname1":{"wt":"Wang"},"given1":{"wt":"Jiawei"},"surname2":{"wt":"Nyima"},"given2":{"wt":"Gyaincain"},"title":{"wt":"The Historical Status of China's Tibet"},"location":{"wt":"Beijing"},"publisher":{"wt":"China Intercontinental Press"},"year":{"wt":"1997"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-7-80113-304-5"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":69}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Wang"},"first":{"wt":"Yuan-kang"},"title":{"wt":"The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)"},"journal":{"wt":"Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics"},"date":{"wt":"2011"},"doi":{"wt":"10.7312/wang15140"},"publisher":{"wt":"Columbia University Press"},"jstor":{"wt":"10.7312/wang15140"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-231-15140-5"}},"i":70}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Wang"},"first":{"wt":"Richard G."},"title":{"wt":"The Ming Prince and Daoism: Institutional Patronage of an Elite"},"date":{"wt":"2012"},"publisher":{"wt":"OUP"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-19-976768-7"}},"i":71}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"White"},"given":{"wt":"William Charles"},"title":{"wt":"The Chinese Jews, Volume 1"},"location":{"wt":"New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Paragon Book Reprint Corporation"},"year":{"wt":"1966"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":72}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite web ","href":"./Template:Cite_web"},"params":{"publisher":{"wt":"The Library of Congress"},"date":{"wt":"4 April 2007"},"url":{"wt":"https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/tooth.html"},"title":{"wt":"Who invented the toothbrush and when was it invented?"},"access-date":{"wt":"18 August 2008"},"ref":{"wt":"{{sfnRef|The Library of Congress (2007)}}"},"archive-date":{"wt":"28 June 2011"},"archive-url":{"wt":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202556/http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/tooth.html"},"url-status":{"wt":"live"}},"i":73}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Wills"},"given":{"wt":"John E. Jr."},"chapter":{"wt":"Relations with Maritime Europe, 1514–1662"},"pages":{"wt":"333–375"},"title":{"wt":"The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2"},"editor1-given":{"wt":"Denis"},"editor1-surname":{"wt":"Twitchett"},"editor2-given":{"wt":"Frederick W."},"editor2-surname":{"wt":"Mote"},"location":{"wt":"Cambridge and New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Cambridge University Press"},"year":{"wt":"1998"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-521-24333-9"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":74}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Wong"},"given":{"wt":"H.C."},"title":{"wt":"China's Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch'ing"},"journal":{"wt":"Isis"},"volume":{"wt":"54"},"issue":{"wt":"1"},"year":{"wt":"1963"},"pages":{"wt":"29–49"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"doi":{"wt":"10.1086/349663"},"s2cid":{"wt":"144136313"}},"i":75}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Wylie"},"given":{"wt":"Turrell V."},"chapter":{"wt":"Lama Tribute in the Ming Dynasty"},"title":{"wt":"The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy"},"editor-given":{"wt":"Alex"},"editor-surname":{"wt":"McKay"},"location":{"wt":"New York"},"publisher":{"wt":"Routledge"},"year":{"wt":"2003"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-415-30843-4"},"postscript":{"wt":"."}},"i":76}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Xie"},"first":{"wt":"Xiaohui"},"editor1-last":{"wt":"Faure"},"editor1-first":{"wt":"David"},"editor2-last":{"wt":"Ho"},"editor2-first":{"wt":"Ts'ui-p'ing"},"title":{"wt":"Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China"},"date":{"wt":"2013"},"publisher":{"wt":"UBC Press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-7748-2371-5"},"edition":{"wt":"illustrated"},"chapter-url":{"wt":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lNBTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA120"},"chapter":{"wt":"5 From Woman's Fertility to Masculine Authority: The Story of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings in Western Hunan"}},"i":77}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Xu"},"first":{"wt":"Xin"},"author-link":{"wt":"Xu Xin (Judaic scholar)"},"title":{"wt":"The Jews of Kaifeng, China : history, culture, and religion"},"date":{"wt":"2003"},"publisher":{"wt":"KTAV Publishing House"},"location":{"wt":"Jersey City, NJ"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-0-88125-791-5"}},"i":78}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last1":{"wt":"Yaniv"},"first1":{"wt":"Zohara"},"last2":{"wt":"Bachrach"},"first2":{"wt":"Uriel"},"title":{"wt":"Handbook of Medicinal Plants"},"year":{"wt":"2005"},"publisher":{"wt":"Psychology Press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-1-56022-995-7"}},"i":79}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"citation ","href":"./Template:Citation"},"params":{"surname":{"wt":"Yuan"},"given":{"wt":"Zheng"},"title":{"wt":"Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment"},"journal":{"wt":"History of Education Quarterly"},"volume":{"wt":"34"},"issue":{"wt":"2"},"year":{"wt":"1994"},"pages":{"wt":"193–213"},"doi":{"wt":"10.2307/369121"},"postscript":{"wt":"."},"jstor":{"wt":"369121"},"s2cid":{"wt":"144538656"}},"i":80}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite wikisource ","href":"./Template:Cite_wikisource"},"params":{"title":{"wt":"History of Ming"},"wslink":{"wt":"zh:明史"},"author1":{"wt":"Zhang Tingyu"},"display-authors":{"wt":"etal"},"language":{"wt":"zh"},"date":{"wt":"1739"},"ref":{"wt":"{{sfnRef|History of Ming}}"}},"i":81}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite book ","href":"./Template:Cite_book"},"params":{"last1":{"wt":"Zhang"},"first1":{"wt":"Yuxin"},"last2":{"wt":"Xiang"},"first2":{"wt":"Hongjia"},"title":{"wt":"Testimony of History"},"year":{"wt":"2002"},"publisher":{"wt":"China Intercontinental Press"},"isbn":{"wt":"978-7-80113-885-9"},"location":{"wt":"China"}},"i":82}},"\n* ",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"last":{"wt":"Zhou"},"first":{"wt":"Shao Quan <!-- 周绍泉 -->"},"title":{"wt":"明代服饰探论"},"trans-title":{"wt":"On the Costumes of Ming Dynasty"},"journal":{"wt":"史学月刊"},"year":{"wt":"1990"},"issue":{"wt":"6"},"pages":{"wt":"34–40"},"language":{"wt":"zh"}},"i":83}},"\n",{"template":{"target":{"wt":"Refend","href":"./Template:Refend"},"params":{},"i":84}}]}'><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1362361369" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" about="#mwt970" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Refbegin/styles.css"}}'>.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents section>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents section>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents section>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style></span><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width
|
||
" style="column-width: 30em" about="#mwt969" id="mwDRM">
|
||
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt972" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFAndrewRapp2000" class="citation cs2">Andrew, Anita N.; Rapp, John A. (2000), <i>Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu</i>, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9580-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9580-5"><bdi>978-0-8476-9580-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autocracy+and+China%27s+Rebel+Founding+Emperors%3A+Comparing+Chairman+Mao+and+Ming+Taizu&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-9580-5&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=Anita+N.&rft.au=Rapp%2C+John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt974" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFAtwell1988" class="citation cs2">Atwell, William S. (1988), "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644", in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Denis C</a>; <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_W._Mote" title="Frederick W. Mote">Mote, Frederick W.</a> (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1</i> (1st<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span class="nowrap">585–</span>640, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521243327" title="Special:BookSources/0521243327"><bdi>0521243327</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+T%27ai-ch%27ang%2C+T%27ien-ch%27i%2C+and+Ch%27ung-chen+reigns%2C+1620%E2%80%931644&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China+Volume+7%3A+The+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1368%E2%80%931644%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=585-640&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0521243327&rft.aulast=Atwell&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt976" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFAtwell2002" class="citation cs2">Atwell, William S. (2002), "Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the 'Great Depression' of the Mid-Fifteenth Century", <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>, <b>61</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">83–</span>113, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2700190" class="external text">10.2307/2700190</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2700190" class="external text">2700190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Time%2C+Money%2C+and+the+Weather%3A+Ming+China+and+the+%27Great+Depression%27+of+the+Mid-Fifteenth+Century&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-113&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2700190&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2700190%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Atwell&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt978" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFAtwell2005" class="citation journal cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (2005), "Another Look at Silver Imports into China, ca. 1635–1644", <i>Journal of World History</i>, <b>16</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">467–</span>489, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2006.0013" class="external text">10.1353/jwh.2006.0013</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079347" class="external text">20079347</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" title="S2CID (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">S2CID</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162090282" class="external text">162090282</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Another+Look+at+Silver+Imports+into+China%2C+ca.+1635%E2%80%931644&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=467-489&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162090282%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20079347%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2006.0013&rft.aulast=Atwell&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt980" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFBroadberry2014" class="citation web cs2">Broadberry, Stephen (2014), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf" class="external text">"China, Europe and the Great Divergence: a Study in National Accounting, 980–1850"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Economic History Association, <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140913073301/http://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf" class="external text">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 13 September 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China%2C+Europe+and+the+Great+Divergence%3A+a+Study+in+National+Accounting%2C+980%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Economic+History+Association&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Broadberry&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feh.net%2Feha%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F05%2FBroadberry.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt982" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFBrook1998" class="citation cs2">Brook, Timothy (1998), <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Confusions_of_Pleasure:_Commerce_and_Culture_in_Ming_China" title="The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China" class="mw-redirect"><i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i></a>, Berkeley: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22154-3"><bdi>978-0-520-22154-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confusions+of+Pleasure%3A+Commerce+and+Culture+in+Ming+China&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22154-3&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt984" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFChang2007" class="citation cs2">Chang, Michael G. (2007), <i>A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring & the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785</i>, Cambridge: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02454-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02454-0"><bdi>978-0-674-02454-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Court+on+Horseback%3A+Imperial+Touring+%26+the+Construction+of+Qing+Rule%2C+1680%E2%80%931785&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02454-0&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt986" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFDennerline1985" class="citation journal cs2">Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985), "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve", <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>, <b>44</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">824–</span>825, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2056469" class="external text">10.2307/2056469</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2056469" class="external text">2056469</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" title="S2CID (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">S2CID</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162510092" class="external text">162510092</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Southern+Ming%2C+1644%E2%80%931662.+By+Lynn+A.+Struve&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=824-825&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162510092%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2056469%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2056469&rft.aulast=Dennerline&rft.aufirst=Jerry+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt988" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFDillon1999" class="citation book cs2">Dillon, Michael (1999), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA34" class="external text"><i>China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects</i></a>, Richmond: Curzon Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3"><bdi>978-0-7007-1026-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Muslim+Hui+community%3A+migration%2C+settlement+and+sects&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pub=Curzon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhUEswLE4SWUC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt990" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0" class="external text"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a>, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0"><bdi>978-0-618-13384-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-618-13384-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rft.au=Palais%2C+James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feastasiacultural00ebre_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt992" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFEbrey1999" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00ebre" class="external text"><i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i></a>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66991-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66991-7"><bdi>978-0-521-66991-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-66991-7&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeillustr00ebre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt994" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFElman1991" class="citation journal cs2">Elman, Benjamin A. (1991), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf" class="external text">"Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>, <b>50</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">7–</span>28, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2057472" class="external text">10.2307/2057472</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2057472" class="external text">2057472</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" title="OCLC (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">OCLC</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2057472" class="external text">2057472</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" title="S2CID (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">S2CID</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154406547" class="external text">154406547</a>, <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf" class="external text">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 October 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Cultural+Reproduction+via+Civil+Service+Examinations+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-28&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2057472&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154406547%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2057472%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2057472&rft.aulast=Elman&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~elman%2Fdocuments%2FCivil_Service_Examinations.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt996" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFElman2000" class="citation book cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (2000), <i>A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China</i>, University of California Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92147-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92147-4"><bdi>978-0-520-92147-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Civil+Examinations+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92147-4&rft.aulast=Elman&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt998" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFEngelfriet1998" class="citation cs2">Engelfriet, Peter M. (1998), <i>Euclid in China: The Genesis of the First Translation of Euclid's Elements in 1607 & Its Reception Up to 1723</i>, Leiden: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninklijke_Brill" title="Koninklijke Brill" class="mw-redirect">Koninklijke Brill</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10944-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10944-5"><bdi>978-90-04-10944-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Euclid+in+China%3A+The+Genesis+of+the+First+Translation+of+Euclid%27s+Elements+in+1607+%26+Its+Reception+Up+to+1723&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Koninklijke+Brill&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10944-5&rft.aulast=Engelfriet&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1000" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="citation cs2">Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006), <i>China: A New History</i> (2nd<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01828-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01828-0"><bdi>978-0-674-01828-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+New+History&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01828-0&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John+King&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Merle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1002" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFFan2016" class="citation book cs2">Fan, C. Simon (2016), <i>Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character</i>, Routledge, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-24183-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-24183-6"><bdi>978-1-317-24183-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture%2C+Institution%2C+and+Development+in+China%3A+The+economics+of+national+character&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-24183-6&rft.aulast=Fan&rft.aufirst=C.+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1004" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFFrank1998" class="citation book cs2">Frank, Andre Gunder (1998), <i>ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age</i>, Berkeley; London: University of California Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21129-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21129-2"><bdi>978-0-520-21129-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ReOrient%3A+Global+Economy+in+the+Asian+Age&rft.place=Berkeley%3B+London&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21129-2&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Andre+Gunder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1006" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFThe_Ming_Biographical_Dictionary_(1976)" class="citation cs2">Goodrich, Luther Carrington (1976), <i>Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03833-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03833-1"><bdi>978-0-231-03833-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Ming+Biography%2C+1368%E2%80%931644&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-231-03833-1&rft.aulast=Goodrich&rft.aufirst=Luther+Carrington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1008" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFGascoigne2003" class="citation cs2">Gascoigne, Bamber (2003), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://archive.org/details/dynastiesofchina00gasc" class="external text"><i>The Dynasties of China: A History</i></a>, New York: Carroll & Graf, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1219-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1219-9"><bdi>978-0-7867-1219-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynasties+of+China%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-1219-9&rft.aulast=Gascoigne&rft.aufirst=Bamber&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdynastiesofchina00gasc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1010" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFGeiss1988" class="citation cs2">Geiss, James (1988), "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1</i>, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span class="nowrap">403–</span>439, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2"><bdi>978-0-521-24332-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Cheng-te+reign%2C+1506%E2%80%931521&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+7%2C+The+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1368%E2%80%931644%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pages=403-439&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24332-2&rft.aulast=Geiss&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1012" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1997" class="citation cs2">Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1997), <i>The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet and the Dalai Lama</i>, Berkeley: University of California Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21951-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21951-9"><bdi>978-0-520-21951-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Snow+Lion+and+the+Dragon%3A+China%2C+Tibet+and+the+Dalai+Lama&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21951-9&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1014" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHargett1985" class="citation cs2">Hargett, James M. (1985), "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)", <i>Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews</i>, <b>7</b> (1/2): <span class="nowrap">67–</span>93, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F495194" class="external text">10.2307/495194</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/495194" class="external text">495194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Literature%3A+Essays%2C+Articles%2C+Reviews&rft.atitle=Some+Preliminary+Remarks+on+the+Travel+Records+of+the+Song+Dynasty+%28960%E2%80%931279%29&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=67-93&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F495194&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F495194%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hargett&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1016" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHartwell1982" class="citation cs2">Hartwell, Robert M. (1982), "Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750–1550", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>42</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">365–</span>442, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718941" class="external text">10.2307/2718941</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718941" class="external text">2718941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Demographic%2C+Political%2C+and+Social+Transformations+of+China%2C+750%E2%80%931550&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=365-442&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718941&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718941%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hartwell&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1018" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHerman2007" class="citation book cs2">Herman, John E. (2007), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MWxwAAAAMAAJ&q=bozhou+yang" class="external text"><i>Amid the Clouds and Mist: China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200–1700</i></a> (Illustrated<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>ed.), Harvard University Asia Center, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02591-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02591-2"><bdi>978-0-674-02591-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amid+the+Clouds+and+Mist%3A+China%27s+Colonization+of+Guizhou%2C+1200%E2%80%931700&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02591-2&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMWxwAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbozhou%2Byang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1020" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHinsch1990" class="citation book cs2">Hinsch, Bret (1990), Hinsch, Bret (ed.), <i>Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China</i>, University of California Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520912656" class="external text">10.1525/9780520912656</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91265-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91265-6"><bdi>978-0-520-91265-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passions+of+the+Cut+Sleeve%3A+The+Male+Homosexual+Tradition+in+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520912656&rft.isbn=978-0-520-91265-6&rft.aulast=Hinsch&rft.aufirst=Bret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1022" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHo1959" class="citation cs2">Ho, Ping-ti (1982) [1959], <i>Studies on the Population of China: 1368–1953</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-85245-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-85245-7"><bdi>978-0-674-85245-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+the+Population+of+China%3A+1368%E2%80%931953&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-674-85245-7&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Ping-ti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1024" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHo1962" class="citation book cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (1962), <i>The Ladder of Success in Imperial China</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-89496-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-89496-8"><bdi>978-0-231-89496-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ladder+of+Success+in+Imperial+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-231-89496-8&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Ping-Ti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (<a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw:PageProp/Category" href="./Category:CS1_errors:_ISBN_date"/></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1027" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHopkins2002" class="citation book cs2">Hopkins, Donald R. (2002), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://archive.org/details/greatestkillersm0000hopk" class="external text"><i>The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History</i></a></span>, University of Chicago Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35168-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35168-1"><bdi>978-0-226-35168-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greatest+Killer%3A+Smallpox+in+History&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-226-35168-1&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Donald+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatestkillersm0000hopk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1029" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHucker1958" class="citation cs2">Hucker, Charles O. (1958), "Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>21</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>66, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718619" class="external text">10.2307/2718619</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718619" class="external text">2718619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Governmental+Organization+of+The+Ming+Dynasty&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=1-66&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718619&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718619%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hucker&rft.aufirst=Charles+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1031" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFHucker1998" class="citation cs2">Hucker, Charles O. (1998), "Ming government", in <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_W._Mote" title="Frederick W. Mote">Mote, Frederick W.</a>; <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Denis C</a> (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of China 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368 — 1644, Part 2</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span class="nowrap">9–</span>105, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521243335" title="Special:BookSources/0521243335"><bdi>0521243335</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ming+government&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China+8%3A+The+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1368+%E2%80%94+1644%2C+Part+2&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=9-105&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0521243335&rft.aulast=Hucker&rft.aufirst=Charles+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1033" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFKinney1995" class="citation book cs2">Kinney, Anne Behnke (1995), <i>Chinese Views of Childhood</i>, University of Hawai'i Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1681-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1681-0"><bdi>978-0-8248-1681-0</bdi></a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wr0q3" class="external text">j.ctt6wr0q3</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Views+of+Childhood&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt6wr0q3%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1681-0&rft.aulast=Kinney&rft.aufirst=Anne+Behnke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1035" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFKolmaš1967" class="citation cs2">Kolmaš, Josef (1967), <i>Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-Tibetan Relations Up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912: Occasional Paper 7</i>, Canberra: The Australian National University, Centre of Oriental Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibet+and+Imperial+China%3A+A+Survey+of+Sino-Tibetan+Relations+Up+to+the+End+of+the+Manchu+Dynasty+in+1912%3A+Occasional+Paper+7&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=The+Australian+National+University%2C+Centre+of+Oriental+Studies&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Kolma%C5%A1&rft.aufirst=Josef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1037" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFKuttner1975" class="citation cs2">Kuttner, Fritz A. (1975), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200226054318/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eae2/c125193984891c6b0ffa4396e8249cf3a5b3.pdf" class="external text">"Prince Chu Tsai-Yü's Life and Work: A Re-Evaluation of His Contribution to Equal Temperament Theory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Ethnomusicology</i>, <b>19</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">163–</span>206, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F850355" class="external text">10.2307/850355</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/850355" class="external text">850355</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" title="S2CID (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">S2CID</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160016226" class="external text">160016226</a>, archived from <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eae2/c125193984891c6b0ffa4396e8249cf3a5b3.pdf" class="external text">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnomusicology&rft.atitle=Prince+Chu+Tsai-Y%C3%BC%27s+Life+and+Work%3A+A+Re-Evaluation+of+His+Contribution+to+Equal+Temperament+Theory&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=163-206&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160016226%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F850355%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F850355&rft.aulast=Kuttner&rft.aufirst=Fritz+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Feae2%2Fc125193984891c6b0ffa4396e8249cf3a5b3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1039" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFLanglois1988" class="citation cs2">Langlois, John D. Jr. (1988), "The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1</i>, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span class="nowrap">107–</span>181, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2"><bdi>978-0-521-24332-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Hung-wu+reign%2C+1368%E2%80%931398&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+7%2C+The+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1368%E2%80%931644%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pages=107-181&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24332-2&rft.aulast=Langlois&rft.aufirst=John+D.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1041" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFLane2019" class="citation web cs2">Lane, Kris (30 July 2019), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210109144110/https://aeon.co/essays/potosi-the-mountain-of-silver-that-was-the-first-global-city" class="external text">"Potosí: the mountain of silver that was the first global city"</a>, <i><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeon_(digital_magazine)" title="Aeon (digital magazine)" class="mw-redirect">Aeon</a></i>, archived from <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://aeon.co/essays/potosi-the-mountain-of-silver-that-was-the-first-global-city" class="external text">the original</a> on 9 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2019</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aeon&rft.atitle=Potos%C3%AD%3A+the+mountain+of+silver+that+was+the+first+global+city&rft.date=2019-07-30&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Kris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faeon.co%2Fessays%2Fpotosi-the-mountain-of-silver-that-was-the-first-global-city&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1043" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFLeslie1998" class="citation web cs2">Leslie, Donald D. (1998), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf" class="external text">"The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>www.islamicpopulation.com</i>, The 59th George E. Morrison Lecture in Ethnology, archived from <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf" class="external text">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.islamicpopulation.com&rft.atitle=The+Integration+of+Religious+Minorities+in+China%3A+The+Case+of+Chinese+Muslims&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Leslie&rft.aufirst=Donald+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicpopulation.com%2Fasia%2FChina%2FChina_integration%2520of%2520religious%2520minority.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1045" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFLipman1998" class="citation cs2">Lipman, Jonathan N. (1998), <i>Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China</i>, Seattle: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington_Press" title="University of Washington Press">University of Washington Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Familiar+Strangers%3A+A+History+of+Muslims+in+Northwest+China&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1047" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFMote2003" class="citation cs2">Mote, Frederick W. (2003), <i>Imperial China, 900–1800</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7"><bdi>978-0-674-01212-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+China%2C+900%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01212-7&rft.aulast=Mote&rft.aufirst=Frederick+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1049" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2006" class="citation cs2">Maddison, Angus (2006), <i>Development Centre Studies The World Economy Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics</i>, Paris: OECD Publishing, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-64-02262-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-64-02262-1"><bdi>978-92-64-02262-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+Centre+Studies+The+World+Economy+Volume+1%3A+A+Millennial+Perspective+and+Volume+2%3A+Historical+Statistics&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=OECD+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-92-64-02262-1&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1051" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNaquin2000" class="citation cs2">Naquin, Susan (2000), <i>Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900</i>, Berkeley: University of California press, p.<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>xxxiii, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21991-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21991-5"><bdi>978-0-520-21991-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peking%3A+Temples+and+City+Life%2C+1400%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=xxxiii&rft.pub=University+of+California+press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21991-5&rft.aulast=Naquin&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1053" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1959" class="citation cs2"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1959), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" title="Bibcode (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959scc3.book.....N" class="external text">1959scc3.book.....N</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+3%2C+Mathematics+and+the+Sciences+of+the+Heavens+and+the+Earth&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1959scc3.book.....N&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1055" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1965" class="citation cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (1965), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering</i>, Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+4%2C+Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+2%2C+Mechanical+Engineering&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1057" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1971" class="citation cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (1971), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics</i>, Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+4%2C+Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+3%2C+Civil+Engineering+and+Nautics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1059" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1984" class="citation cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (1984), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2: Agriculture</i>, Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+6%2C+Biology+and+Biological+Technology%2C+Part+2%3A+Agriculture&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1061" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1987" class="citation cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (1987), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic</i>, Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+5%2C+Chemistry+and+Chemical+Technology%2C+Part+7%2C+Military+Technology%3B+the+Gunpowder+Epic&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1063" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNess1998" class="citation thesis cs2">Ness, John Philip (1998), <a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GI9U6sj_NWMC&q=bozhou+yang" class="external text"><i>The Southwestern Frontier During the Ming Dynasty</i></a> (PhD thesis), University of Minnesota</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Southwestern+Frontier+During+the+Ming+Dynasty&rft.inst=University+of+Minnesota&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Ness&rft.aufirst=John+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGI9U6sj_NWMC%26q%3Dbozhou%2Byang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1065" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFNorbu2001" class="citation cs2">Norbu, Dawa (2001), <i>China's Tibet Policy</i>, Richmond: Curzon, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0474-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0474-3"><bdi>978-0-7007-0474-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Tibet+Policy&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pub=Curzon&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0474-3&rft.aulast=Norbu&rft.aufirst=Dawa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1067" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2000" class="citation cs2">Perdue, Peter C. (2000), "Culture, History, and Imperial Chinese Strategy: Legacies of the Qing Conquests", in van de Ven, Hans (ed.), <i>Warfare in Chinese History</i>, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp.<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><span class="nowrap">252–</span>287, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" title="ISBN (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11774-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11774-7"><bdi>978-90-04-11774-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Culture%2C+History%2C+and+Imperial+Chinese+Strategy%3A+Legacies+of+the+Qing+Conquests&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Chinese+History&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=252-287&rft.pub=Koninklijke+Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11774-7&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1069" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFPeterson1986" class="citation journal cs2">Peterson, Willard J. (1986), "Calendar Reform Prior to the Arrival of Missionaries at the Ming Court", <i>Ming Studies</i>, <b>1986</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">45–</span>61, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F014703786788764194" class="external text">10.1179/014703786788764194</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ming+Studies&rft.atitle=Calendar+Reform+Prior+to+the+Arrival+of+Missionaries+at+the+Ming+Court&rft.volume=1986&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-61&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F014703786788764194&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Willard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1071" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFPlaks1987" class="citation journal cs2"><a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_H._Plaks" title="Andrew H. Plaks">Plaks, Andrew. H</a> (1987), "Chin P'ing Mei: Inversion of Self-cultivation", <i>The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel: Ssu Ta Ch'i-shu</i>, Princeton University Press: <span class="nowrap">55–</span>182, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt17t75h5" class="external text">j.ctt17t75h5</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Four+Masterworks+of+the+Ming+Novel%3A+Ssu+Ta+Ch%27i-shu&rft.atitle=Chin+P%27ing+Mei%3A+Inversion+of+Self-cultivation&rft.pages=55-182&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt17t75h5%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Plaks&rft.aufirst=Andrew.+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1073" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1999" class="citation cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (1999), "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>59</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">79–</span>123, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2652684" class="external text">10.2307/2652684</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" title="JSTOR (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">JSTOR</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2652684" class="external text">2652684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Politics%2C+Force+and+Ethnicity+in+Ming+China%3A+Mongols+and+the+Abortive+Coup+of+1461&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-123&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2652684&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2652684%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|
||
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" about="#mwt1075" typeof="mw:Extension/templatestyles" data-mw='{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""}}'/><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2000" class="citation cs2"><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span><span typeof="mw:Entity">—</span> (2000), "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525)", <i>Journal of Social History</i>, <b>33</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">527–</span>563, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" title="Doi (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">doi</a>:<a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjsh.2000.0035" class="external text">10.1353/jsh.2000.0035</a>, <a rel="mw:WikiLink" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" title="S2CID (identifier)" class="mw-redirect">S2CID</a><span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span><a rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144496554" class="external text">144496554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=Banditry+and+the+Subversion+of+State+Authority+in+China%3A+The+Capital+Region+during+the+Middle+Ming+Period+%281450%E2%80%931525%29&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=527-563&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjsh.2000.0035&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144496554%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li>
|